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Copyright, 1888, By Davis E. Dewey. 



LECTURES. 



I. India. 

II. The Afghan Question; British Interests in Asia. 

III. China. 

IV. Japan ; The Tonquin War*. 
V. Australia. 

VI. VII. The Ottoman Empire ; The Eastern Question. 

VIII. Austria, 1815-1867. 

IX. Government of Austro-Hungary. 

X. German Confederations and the Growth of Prus- 
sia. 

XI. The German Empire. 

XII. France, 1815-1870. 

XIII. France as a Republic, 1871-1887. . 

XIV. Russia. 

XV. The Central Government of Great Britain. 

XVI. Parliamentary and Electoral Reform ; English 
Political Parties. 

XVII. Ireland and the Irish Question. 

XVIII. Colonies of Great Britain; Imperial Federation. 

XIX. Disraeli and Gladstone. 

XX. Italy and the Struggle for Unity ; Switzerland. 

XXI. Spain ; Greece. 

XXII. Holland and Belgium. 

XXIII. Canada ; the Fishery Question. 

XXIV. Mexico and Central America. 
XXV. South American Republics ; Brazil. 



BOOKS OF GENERAL EEFERENCE. 



Amos. — The Science of English Politics. International Scientific 

Series. London, 1883. 
EwALD. — The Last Century of Universal History. 1767-1867. 

London, 1868. , 

Feilden. — A Short Constitutional History of England. London, 

1882. 
Fyffe. — A History of Modern Europe. Vols. L and IL New 

York, 1887. 
Hunter. — The Indian Empire : Its History, People, and Products. 

London, 1882. 
Laveleye. — The Balkan Peninsula. New York, 1887. 
Lodge. — A History of Modern Europe. The Student's Series. 

New York, 1886. 
McCarthy. — A History of Our Own Times, — from the Accession 

of Queen Victoria to the General Election of 1880. Vols. I. 

and II. New York. 
Muller. — Political History of Recent Times, 1816-1875. "With 

Special Reference to Germany. 1882. 
Ploetz. — Epitome of Ancient, Medizeval, and Modern History. 

Translated, with Extensive Additions, by W. H. Tillinghast. 

Boston, 1884. 
The Statesman's Year Book. — Statistical and Historical Annual 

of the States of the Civilized World. 1887. 
Traill. — Central Government. London, 1881. 
Wallace. — Russia. New York, 1881. 
Ward. — The Reign of Queen Victoria. A Survey of Fifty Years 

of Progress. Vols. I. and II. London, 1887. 
Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. A Survey of the Geography, 

Government, Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History of The 

Chinese Empire. Vols. I. and II. New York, 1883. 
Wilson. — China. With a Glance at Japan. New York, 1887. 



LECTURE I. 



A. THE EARTH. 

1. Distribution of land and water. Area of the Earth : 145 m. 
sq. miles, water ; 51m., land. Land, 17 times area U. S. 

2. Density of population. Popul. 1434 m.; equals 25 times U. S. 
Density, 27 to the sq. mile. 

B. ASIA. 

1. General physical characteristics. Popul., nearly f that of 
globe. Density, 46 to the sq. m., or about i that of Europe. 

2. Few Independent states. 

3. Four political groups. 

a. The northern, or Russian, portion. 

l. The southern, or English Colonial, portion. 

c. The western, or Mohammedan, portion ; protected by Eng- 

land and Russia. 

d. The eastern, or Buddhist, portion ; independent states. 

4. Railways and telegraphs. 

5. Cities. 

C. INDIA. 

Refekencks : The Indian Empire. By W. W. Hunter. 

India. By Sir Henry Maine, in The Reign of Queen Vic- 
toria. Vol. I. 460. 

Muller,hl^-bll; McCarthy, II. 33-36; 11.36-38:11.38- 
48; II. 49; II. 53-54; II. 55-56; II. 57-70; II. 70-73; 
II. 75 ; II. 70-80 ; II. 80-82. 



6 



The Expansion of England. By J. R. Seeley. Course II. 
Lectures II.-IV. 

1. Size, density, physical characteristics. Area, 1 ^^^ m. sq. ni., 
or nearly | U. S. ; popul., 253 m. ; density, 184 per sq. rn. Hunter, 
62-63. 

2. History of acquisition by England. Mc Carthy, I. 440. 

a. Organization of East India Company in 1600, for trading ; 
rival companies ; final consolidation and exclusive privi- 
leges to trade to all places between the Cape of Good 
Hope and the Straits of Magellan. 

h. Establishment of factories. Hunter, 276-277. 

c. Contests with Dutch and F'rench trading companies. 

d. Clive and the battle of Plassey, 1757. " History has 

agreed to adopt this date as the beginning of the Brit- 
ish Empire in the East." 
Hunter, 2^0 ; Muller, 154; oy Lodge, 418. 

e. Governed by East India Co. until 1858. Hunter, 322-323. 

/. Sepoy mutiny occurred ; its cause, " an outburst of terri- 
fied fanaticism " ; the government transferred from East 
India Co. to the Crown. 

Muller, 292-294; or McCarthy, II. 85-92; Hunter, 318- 
322. 
g. In 1876 Victoria took the title Empress of India. Hun- 
ter, 323. 

3. Language. — No single common name for all India ; extreme 
varieties. " India is much less uniform than Europe." The Reign 
of Queen Victoria, I. 461. 

4. Religion. — 187 m. Hindoos; 50 m. Mohammedans; 3 m. 
Buddhists ; 1.8 m. Christians. Bitter antagonism between Mohamme- 
dans and Hindoos. 

5. India is an English dependency ; contrast with English colo- 
nial governments, which are of three forms : — 

a. Those having no responsible or representative government. 

h. Those having no responsible but representative govern- 
ment. 

c. Those having both responsible and representative govern- 
ment. 



6. Feudatory India. — Area, 509,000 sq. m. ; popul., 55 m. ; gov- 
erned by native princes, advised by agents appointed by Viceroy ; 
no right to make viar or peace ; some pay tribute. Hunter, 60. 

7. British India. 

a. India office in London ; Secretary of State for India 
responsible to Parliament; a Cabinet Minister, assisted 
by a Council divided into Committees. Hunter, 328. 
h. Administrative divisions in India. McCarthy, II. 91-92. 
(1). Supreme authority in India vested in Viceroy or Gov- 
ernor-General, who is assisted by council. 
(2). British possessions divided into 12 governments (two 
presidencies, Madras and Bombay; and 10 provin- 
ces). 
(3). Provinces divided into districts — 240 in number — 
each in charge of a collector. '' Upon the energy 
and personal character of the collector depends 
ultimately the efficiency of the Indian government." 
Duties twofold : fiscal officer, also civil and criminal 
judge. Hunter, 332. 

c. Responsibility. 

"The political constitution of India is regulated by a series of Acts of Parliament, 
which culminate in the Act of 1858 transferring the government from the Company to 
the Crown. By that statute it is enacted that India shall be governed by, and in the name 
of, the Queen [now the Empress] through one of her principal Secretaries of State, 
assisted by a council. The Secretary of State is a Cabinet Minister ; and, according to 
the practice of the British constitution, he must have a seat in one of the two Houses of 
Parliament, while his Under-Secretary must sit in the other. Responsibility to Parlia- 
ment is thus provided, with all that this entails. The Indian Budget is annually submitted 
to the House of Commons, though the ways and means are not voted in detail as with the 
English Budget. Still it is recognized in countless matters that the English Parliament is 
really the supreme ruler of India." Colonies and Dependencies. By J. S. Cotton. Part 
I. 36-37. 

d. Extension of local government. '■'■Local Self- Government 

in India." By A. H. L. Frazer. Fortnightly Rev., 

V. 39. 238. (1886.) 
(1). Former local government. 
(2). English Centralization. 
Lord Ripon's policy ; Ilbert bill. Extend benefits of local 

self-government. Ilbert bill to extend jurisdiction of 

native judges in criminal offences over Europeans. 







8 

f. Demands of natives : 

(1). Election of native members to the legislatures. 

(2). Admission of more members to the Indian Council of 

Fifteen. 
(3). Civil service to be open farther to natives. 
Eefeeences : '•'■The National Indian Congress'' By John Flagg. 
I'dth Century, v. 19, 710. (May, 1886.) 
"7%e Indian Mohammedans.'" By Sir Wm. H, Gregory. 
l^th Century, v. 20. 886. (Dec, 1886.) 

g. Unifying influences : Reign of Queen Vict., I. 462. 
(1). Land system. 

(2). Extension of Christian morality. 
(3). Administration of justice by English courts. 
(4). English language. 
h. Wheat trade of India. Hunter, 384-5 ; 452 ; current num- 
hers of Bradstreef s. 



LECTURE 11. 



A. THE AFGHAN fttJESTION. 

1. Russian encroachments upon Asia. 
a. Possessions in 1750. 
h. Lines ©f advance. 

(1). Southeast from Oremberg. The Khanates of Kho- 

land, Bokhara, and Khiva were acquired. 
(2). Valley of Jaxartes to Oxus river. 

c. Capture of Merv, 1884. 

d. Herat, the key to India. 



9 

2. English interests in Central Asia. 

a. First Afghan war, 1839. Mulhr, 154; McCarthy, I. 151- 
180; Hunter, 309,310. 

War between England and the Afghans in 1839, on 
account of the advance of the Russians. England set up 
a friendly prince as ruler. At the instigation of the Rus- 
sians, the Afglians rose against the English, and defeated 
them disastrously. The English, however, soon gained 
supremacy, destroyed Candahar and Cabul, and then evacu- 
ated the country. England lost prestige. 

" The Afghan war of 1838 was exclusively the work of the Board of Control. The sub- 
sequent avowal of its President, 'Alone I did it,' has stamped itself on Indian historical 
recollection. The British arms have hardly ever been engaged in a struggle of such sus- 
tamed and varied dramatic interest. The permanent interest of this Afghan war arises 
from Its benig the first of a series of efforts to arrest or neutralize the steady advance of 
the Russian power to .^/e mountains which form the northwestern frontier of India " 
The lieic/n of Queen Fc^:torta, I. 465. 

b. Second Afghan war, 1878-1881. Muller, 577-580; 3fcCar- 

thy, II. 617-619; Hunter, 326-327. 

In 1877 England made a treaty with the Prince of Beloo- 
chistan ; Quetta and the road between Candahar and Cabul 
were granted for occupation. The Ameer of Afghanistan, 
Shere Ali, sought alliance with Russia. A mission was 
sent by the latter power; this, however, a breach of the 
understanding between England and Russia. An ambas- 
sador was therefore sent by England ; he was denied admit- 
tance, and an English military force consequently ad- 
vanced. At thi-s juncture Shere Ali died. His son Yakoob 
Khan succeeded him. A treaty was made ; a subsidy granted 
to the Ameer, and a resident agent of England appointed. 
A mutiny then occurred, followed by a massacre of Eng- 
lish troops. Advance of General Roberts and war. Abdur- 
rahman recognized as the Ameer. English finally victori- 
ous. Candahar evacuated in 1881. 

3. Conflict of Russian and P^nglish interests. 

4. Boundary disputes between England and Russia. 

5. Railway construction to interior Asia. 

6. Position of Pall Mall Gazette and Non-alarmists. It is claimed : 

a. The true scientific frontier is not the northern boundary 
of Afghanistan but the Indus. 



10 

h. Herat is not the key to India. 

c. England has no right to complain of Russian advance; 

matched by English policy of conquest. 

d. Impossible to make Afghanistan a " buffer " state since it 

is peopled by a variety of races in tribal condition. 

e. The true frontier is the great wall of India, consisting of 

the Suliman mountains. Few passes ; the Indus is un- 
fordable up to Peshawur. 
The True Scientific Frontier of India. By John Slagg. l^th 

Century, July, 1885. 151. 
The Great Wall of India. By Henry Green, l^th Century, 
May, 1885. 905. 

B. PERSIA. 

\ 

Eeferences : Through Persia. By Claude Vincent. Cont. Rev., 
V. 49. 252. (Feb., 1886.) 
Persia. By S. G. W. Benjamin. 

1. Area, 630,000 sq. m., or \ of U. S. ; largely a desert. Popu- 
lation 6 m. 

2. History. 632-651, A. D., all Persia conquered by Saracens, 
and gradually converted to Mahometanism. Until 1747, a populous 
and more extensive state than at present. In that year Nadir Shah 
died, and the country fell into a state of anarchy, owing to rival 
claimants for the throne. At this period, Afghanistan and Beloo- 
chistan separated from Persia, which became divided into a number of 
small independent states. In 1755, unity again established in west- 
ern Persia. "Wars with Russia and cessions of territory. 

a. 1797, territory along the Kur ceded to Russia. 

b. 1802, Georgia made a Russian province. 

c. 1811-1813, surrender to Russia of all territory north of 

Armenia; Russia obtained right of navigation upon the 
Caspian. 

d. In 1826, lost all possessions in Armenia. In 1829, the 

popular exasperation toward Russia led to a mutiny 
resulting in the murder of many Russian officials. Fur- 
ther concessions, however, had to be made to Russia, and 
since that date the power of Persia has rapidly declined. 



11 



In 1834-48, through assistance of Russia and England, 
Mohammed Shah obtained the throne ; but was constantly 
assailed by rivals. In 1856, Persia seized Herat, violat- 
ing treaty with Great Britain ; war, and restoration in 
1857. 

3. Government and administration. 

a. Shah. h. Cabinet, c. Provinces, d. Local government. 

4. Present politics. 

a. Possibility of civil war. 
h. Province of Khorassan. 

c. Russian ambition ; a port on Persian Gulf ; alleged will 

of Peter the Great : " hasten the decay of Persia, and 
penetrate to the Persian Gulf." 

d. English interests ; Indian telegraph line. 

C. BELOOCHISTAN. 

Barren region, with a poor scattered population, and no towns of 
importance except Quetta. Occupied by the Viceroy of India in 
1876; and protectorate established in 1883. Important as an ap- 
proach to Herat. 

D. CEYLON. 

1. Physical and material characteristics. 

2. Acquisition by England. 

3. Government. 

4. Material importance. 

E. BURMAH. 

1. Size; density; resources; religion; language. 

2. Independent ; King Theebaw. 

3. Encroachments of England; 1824, 1852, 1886. 

4. Annexation by England. 

5. Present government. 

6. Material importance. 



LECTURE III. 



CHINA. 

1. Chief geographical divisions : Mongolia, Manchuria, Thibet, 
Corea. One-third larger than United States ; population, 404 m. ; 
China proper is about one-third of the empire. 

Wilsoti, 63-68; Willimns, 1. 187-206; 237-257. 

2. Opening of trade with China. 

a. Until 1834, almost a monopoly of commerce by East India 
and Dutch trading companies ; the tea trade ; licensed 
Hong merchants. Wilson, 315. 

h. 1834, Napier sent to force open trade with England. Wil- 
son, 319; Williams, IT. 464-474. 

c. Smuggling of opium into China from India ; opposition ; 

English interests. Jf^Yson, 321-324 ; Williams, II. 378- 
380. 

d. Opium war, 1839-1842. Wihon, 324-340; McCarthy,!. 

112-124; Williams, II. 463-546; Midler, 154. 

e. War closed by Treaty of Nanking : 
(1). Five open ports to British trade ; 
(2). Hong-Kong ceded to England ; 
(3). China paid -^21 m. ; 

(4). Official intercourse on terms of equality. 
(5). Tariff established. Williams, II. 546-553. 

3. Taiping rebellion, 1850-64; religious rebellion; Hung-Tre- 
Chuen ; immense loss of life ; increasing hostility to foreigners. Wil- 
liams, II. 575-624 ; Wilson, 331-333. 

" The Emperor Taow-Kwaiig, who died in 1850, during latter part of his reign became 
liberal, and favored the introduction of European arts ; but his son, the late emperor, 
departed from his father's wise policy, and adopted reactionary measures, particularly 
against English influence. An insurrection broke out in consequence, Aug., 1850, of 
alarming importance. The insurgents at first proposed only to expel the Tartars ; but in 
March, 1851, a pretender was announced among them, first by the name of Tienteli 



13 



(Celestial Virtue), but afterwards assuming other names. He announced himself as the 
restorer of the worship of the true God, Shang-ti, but had derived many of his dogmas 
from the Bible. He declared himself monarch of all beneath the sky, true lord of China 
(and thus of the world), the brother of Jesus, and the Second Son of God, and demanded 
universal submission. His followers are termed Taepings. The Taepings, who began hos- 
tilities against the Imperialists, met with some success. Operations, supended during war 
between France and England and China, were renewed in 1861. They sustained many 
reverses, and were defeated with great loss in Feb., 1866." Ewald, 122. 

4. The Arrow under British flag boarded by Chinese in search of 
pirates, 1856 ; McCarthy, 11. 9-19; wars, 1857-1860; alliance of 
France and England ; treaty of Pekin ; further concessions. Wilson, 
336-342; McCarthy, II. 108-110; 175-183; Williams, U. 625-689. 

5. Political system. 

a. Emperor, supreme. TF^7so?^, 169-174 ; 179-181 ; Williams, 

I. 393-403. 
h. Fundamental laws : first four books of Confucius ; state 

governed as private family. Wilson, 182-183. 

c. Central administration; ministers of state; Wilson, 184- 

192; the six boards of government; the Censor. Wilson, 
192, 351; Williams,!. 415-433. 

d. Provincial administration ; 18 provinces. JFiVsore, 193-196 ; 

Williams, I. 437-447. 

e. Civil service ; examinations. Wilson, 181. 

6. Religion ; the state religion is Confucianism ; Taoism ; popular 
religion is Buddhism ; ancestral worship ; 30 m. Mohammedans. Wil- 
liams, II. 194-278. 

7. Economic development. 

a. Railways and telegraphs. 

h. Navigation; commercial intercourse. Wilson, 363; Wil- 
liams, 11. 390-405. 
c. Financial system. Wilson, 200-214. 



LECTURE IV. 



A. JAPAN. 

References : Wilson, 13-18. 

1. Geographical situation ; four islands ; area equals Dakota ; 
population, 37 m. 

2. History. 

a. Lack of early records. 

b. 3rd century to 1192, the Mikado was supreme. 

c. 1192-1868, dual government of Shogun, or Tycoon, and 

Mikado ; Mikado spiritual, and Shogun temporal, au- 
thority. 

d. 1868, revolution, and Mikado reasserted his authority. 

e. 1871, Feudalism abolished. 

f. 1873-1881, representative political institutions introduced; 
constitution ; senate and supreme council ; provincial 
assemblies ; in 1881 Mikado promised full national Par- 
liament, to be assembled in 1890. 

3. Intercourse of Japan with foreign countries ; 1854, treaty with 
United States. 

4. Land System. U. S. Consular Reports, No. 75. March, 1887. 
626. 

B. rHENCH POSSESSIONS IN ASIA. 

1. The Tonquin War. 

a. Early history of Anam and Tonquin. In 200 B. C. 
Chinese invaded farther India, and conquered a large 
portion of it; for 1000 years Anam a part of Chinese 
empire ; in 1418, a revolt occurred and the Chinese power 
overthrown; in 1674, the kingdom of Anam split into 



15 

Anam and Tonquin, with the two capitals Hue and 
Hanoi ; both countries soon admitted the supremacy of 
China. 
h. French interference. Conflicts and rivalry of Tonquin and 
Anam; Emperor of Anam forced to flee to Siam, where 
he met a P>ench bishop, through whom he made treaty 
with Louis XVI. of France, in 1787 ; France to reinstate 
the emperor of Anam, and Anam to cede a small portion 
of territory to France ; reinstatement of emperor ; 
French revolution suspended operations, and not until 
1858 did France again push her claims ; in 1862 and 
1867, cession of six provinces called Cochin China; in 
1867. French protectorate of Cambodia. 

c. Fertility of Chinese province of Yunam ; reached only by 

Red river through Tonquin. 

d. Tonquin war began in 1882 ; China reasserted her old 

supremacy. Result: France has assumed protectorate 
of Tonquin. 
Cochiu-China. 



LECTURE Y. 



AUSTRALIA. 

References: The Reign of Queen Victoria. I. 437-448. 

European Colonies. By E. J. Payne. Chap. 12. 165-185. 

1. The eight English colonies : Fiji, Western Australia, Southern 
Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and 
New Zealand ; area, nearly that of U. S. 

2. New South Wales. 



16 



a. Early history ; discoveries ; Cook's voyages. Botany Bay 
discovered in 1787 ; New South Wales the oldest settle- 
ment ; first settled by convicts ; 1854, gold discovered ; 
growing importance of the colony; poor government; 
governors were despotic; no trial by jury or criticism of 
the press ; four classes of society : convicts, emancipists, 
free settlers, and officials ; rivalry of emancipists and set- 
tlers who were admitted into the colony in 1851. 

h. Establishment of responsible government in 1855. Par- 
liament ; Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly ; 
nature of each ; the Governor and his Cabinet. 

" There was one grievance common to all the Australian colonies. They objected to the 
mode adopted by the Home Government in dealing with the public lands, and, in their 
consequent anxiety to obtain full local powers of control, they hastened to avail them- 
selves of the authority f:i;ranted by the Act to introduce a more fully representative system 
with two chambers. Their action was confirmed by the Home Parliament, and the public 
lands were surrendered to colonial management. By that time New Zealand and the 
Cape had obtained representative legislatures, the one in 1852, the other in the succeeding 
year. The result of the policy of this period was, not only that representative institutions 
had been granted to the colonies of Australasia and the Cape, but that throughout the 
British possessions the independence of the colonial legislatures had been acknowledged, 
and their claims to a parliamentary government satisfied." The Reign of Queen Victoria, 
I. 414. 

c. Question of single or double legislative chamber. 

A. Advantages of a single assembly. 

1. " That the enormously increased legislative business of modern times is, on the 
whole, delayed, hampered, and interrupted to an extent wholly disproportionate to any 
benefits derived by a second discussion conducted in a different assembly. 

2. As a barrier against the tempestuous current of democracy, the Second Chamber is 
worse than useless, because if the more popular Chamber is practically omnipotent, resist- 
ance will only be persisted in in matters on which the mind of the people is not fully 
made up, and therefore on which no legislation ought to take place at all ; which is only 
saying that the popular Chamber is badly composed, not efiiciently representing the peo- 
ple, and prone to reckless legislation : or if, on the other hand, the popular Chamber is 
not omnipotent, and the two Chambers are of co-equal efiiciency, legislation will either 
be the result of a series of compromises, or be barred altogether by a succession of dead- 
locks, as it has been in the British Colony of Victoria. 

3. So far as, like the Senate of the U. S. and of France and the Legislative Councils 
of the Australian Colonies, it represents a different class of interests or sentiments, it is 
pure legislative loss, without any compensating gain." 

B. Advantages of a double assembly, or a bicameral system. 

1. "That it affords a check upon the characteristic tendency of a democratic assembly 
to hasty and precipitate legislation. 

2. Unless the constitution of the Second Chamber exactly repeats the constitution of 
the fu'st, its existence affords the opportunity of approaching a legislative problem from 
a new point of view, and throv/ing, perhaps, fresh lights upon it. 

3. By prolonging and complicating the process of legislation, it affords multiplied 
opportunities for correcting the oversights, supplying the defects, and improving the 
structure of legislative measures. 



17 



4. In the case of the Second Chamber bemg representative like the first, but repre- 
sentative of other classes of the community, it affords a security that the interests of 
these classes are not overlooked." Amos : The Science of Politics, 238, 239. 
See also May : Constitutional History of Englaud, II. 535-537. 

3. Victoria ; capital, Melbourne ; separated from New South 
Wales in 1850 ; constitution granted in 1855 ; more liberal than 
that of New South Wales; legislative council elected instead of being 
nominated by the Crown. 

4. Southern Australia; discovered in 1802; settled by a company 
and not by convicts ; real estate speculation ; governed by Crown 
until 1856, when a liberal constitution was granted. 

The Wakefield system. 

" Mr. Wakefield's plan was to arrest the strong democratic tendencies of the new com- 
munity, and to reproduce in Australia the strong distinction of classes which was found 
in England. He wanted the land sold as dear as possible, so that laborers might not 
become land-owners; and the produce of the land was to be applied in tempting laborers 
to emigrate with the prospect of better wages than they got at home. It was really a 
plan for getting the advantages of the colony into the hands of the non-laboring classes." 
European Colonies. By E. J. Payne, 173. 

5. Queensland; until 1859 known as Morton Bay; a convict 
colony ; not so advanced as others. 

6. Tasmania; convict settlement, 1803-1850; constitution and 
representative government similar to that of New South Wales. 

7. New Zealand ; representative government ; representation of 
natives in the parliament. 

8. Fiji, ceded to England in 1874; a crown colony. 

9. The transportation of convicts, 1787-1858 ; arguments in favor 
of it ; objections. 

10. Federation of Australian colonies ; act of 1885 providing for 
a representative council to meet once in two years ; its power. 

11. The gold supply of Australia; export of $700 m. ; no pros- 
pect of a diminution. 

12. The Australian system of voting. 



LECTURES YI. AND YII. 



THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND THE EASTERN 
aUESTION. 

1. Early history of the Turks. 

a. The Ottoman Turks appeared in history in 1240; gradu- 
ally acquired province after province from the old East- 
ern Roman empire ; finally established themselves in 
Constantinople in 1453. Lodge, 19; Fisher: Outlines 
of Universal History^ 352, 353. 
h. About 1550 the kingdom of the Turks reached its greatest 
power; 1683, siege of Vienna; Lodge, 208, 209; shift- 
ing of territory between Turkey, Austria, and Russia. 
1768-1774, Catharine's first war against Turkey, by 
which Russia gained territory in the Crimea, and right 
of navigation for trading vessels on the Black Sea ; 
Fyffe, ir. 258; Lodge, 449; McCarthy, I. 453-455. 
Wallachia and other provinces restored to native rulers. 
War closed by peace of Kutschouc Kainardji, Fyffe, II. 
259, 260 ; six important points in this treaty. Ploetz, 412. 

(1). " The Tartars were released from allegiance to 
Turkey and brought under Russian influence. 

(2). Russia obtained a firm footing on the north coasts 
of the Black Sea; pushing back the Turkish frontier to 
the river Boug. 

(3). The frontier line between the two powers in Asia 
was left much as it was before the war. 

(4). Russia stipulated for an embassy at Constanti- 
nople, and for certain privileges for Christians in Turkey. 

(5). Russia exacted promises for the better govern- 
ment of the principalities, reserving the right of remon- 
strance if these wexQ pot kept. 



19 

(6). Russia obtained a declaration of her right of free 
commercial navigation in Turkish waters. All subse- 
quent controversies between the Porte and Russia maj^ 
be referred to one of these six heads." 

c. Gradual encroachment of Russia by successive wars. From 

the Bong river to the Dniester, then to the Pruth. 
Midler, 89, 90. 

d. 1821-1829, Greek Independence. Lodge, 650-656 ; Fyjfe, 

II. 268-280; 285-300; 305-312; 345; Muller, 70-73. 
For the Eastern Question in general before the Crimean 
War, see McCarthy, I. 433-461. For a sketch of the 
previous condition of Greece, see Fyffe, II. 237-262. 
2. Crimean war, 1853-1856. Midler, 253-264 ; Lodge, 743-745. 

a. Causes : ambition of Nicholas I. ; protectorate over all 

Christians of Greek Church. McCarthy, I. 475-517; 
The Reign of Queen Victoria, I. 81-87. 

" The guardianship and possession of certain places at Jerusalem were for many years 
the source of contest between Christians belonging to the Greek and Latin Churches. 
These spots, known as Holy Places, are hallowed from a supposed connection with our 
Saviour, the Virgui Mary, or the early disciples. Amongst them the Church of the Holy 
Sepulchre, on Mt. Calvary, in which the sepulchre of Christ is said to exist, occupies a 
prominent position. In 1690 this Holy Sepulchre was appropriated to the Latins, and 
though other Christians might enter for private devotions, the Latins alone were allowed 
to celebrate mass therein. It afforded constant matter of dispute, and France always 
appeared as champion of the Latin, and Russia in modern times espoused the cause of 
the Greek, Church, for the conflict was at length confined to these rival sects. In 1740 a 
treaty was signed between France and the Porte, having special reference to this question. 
In 1757 a serious outbreak occurred at Jerusalem, and the holy sanctuaries were placed 
under tlie protection of the Greek monks. Thus the rights and privileges granted to the 
Latins by the treaty of 1740 were gradually encroached upon by successive decrees issued 
at Constantinople in favor of Greek Christians. For many years these matters were 
fiercely contested at Jerusalem. In 1850 the French Government directed their representa- 
tive at Constantinople to effect some arrangement. The Turkish Government admitted 
the Justice of the French claims, and affairs were progressing when the Emperor Nicho- 
las, favoring the interests of the Greek Church, wrote a letter to the Sultan, requiring his 
adherence to the status quo. Pressed by these formidable rivals, the Sultan knew not how 
to act ; and as the discussion was prolonged, Nicholas gradually disclosed his real inten- 
tions. An arrangement was nearly concluded in 1852 ; but towards the close of the year 
the Czar set the forces of his empire in motion. In Feb., 1853, Prince Menschikoff 
repaired to Constantinople, as extraordinary ambassador from Russia ; and, although the 
real nature of his mission did not at first transpire, it soon became evident that the ruin 
of Turkey was intended." Condensed from Ewald, 128, 129. 

b. Peace of Paris, 1856. 

(1). Russia ceded the mouths of the Danube and a small 
portion of Bessarabia on the left bank of the lower 
Danube. 



20 

(2). Russia renounced the one-sided protectorate over 
the Christians in Turkey, and over the principalities 
of the Danube. 

(3). Eussia restored Kars, and promised not to establish 
any arsenals upon the Black Sea, nor to maintain there 
more ships than the Porte. 

(4). The western powers restored Sebastopol to Russia, 
after having destroyed the docks, the constructions in 
the harbor, and the fortifications." Ploeiz, 501 ; Lodge, 
745; Muller, 264-266; McCarthy, I. 517-523. 

3. Revolt of Christians in Syria, 1860 ; temporary occupation by 
the French. Muller, 266. 

4. Wallachia and Moldavia united as Roumania, 1861 ; a blow to 
Turkish power. McCarthy, I. 518; MuUer, 266. 

5. Revolt of Crete, which led to ill-feeling between Turkey and 
Greece, 1866; Lodge, 448; western powers interfere. McCarthy, 
II. 585 ; Muller, 398. 

6. Continued revolts, 1870-1875 ; Lodge, 749, 750 ; growing inde- 
pendence of Egypt; revolt in Servia. McCarthy, II. 585, 586. 

7. Revolt in Herzegovina, 1874; McCarthy, II. 587, 588; Midler, 
505-508 ; Lodge, 748 ; Turkish system of taxation ; demands of the 
rebels : a. reform in taxation ; b. native instead of Turkish officials ; 
c. native militia. Sympathy and support of Servia and Montenegro. 
Muller, 511 ; McCarthy, II. 597. 

8. Bulgarian atrocities ; policy of Turkey toward Bulgaria ; 
growth of Tartar population who ill treated the native Bulgarians ; 
revolt in 1876; the Bashi-Bazouks, Lodge, 749; Muller, 514-517; 
McCarthy, II. 591-594; Gladstone: Btdgarian Horrors. 

9. Russia declared war against Turkey, 1877, with no conquests in 
view. 1877-1878, Turco-Russian war. Lodge, 750; Midler, 518- 
545 ; Mc Carthy, II. 600-603. 

10. Concluded by peace of San Stefano, which aroused great oppo- 
sition from western powers as too favorable to Russian interests. 
Muller, 545-548 ; Lodge, 751 ; McCarthy, II. 602-605. 

11. Congress of Berlin, June, 1878. "Principal conditions: 

a. Montenegro, Servia, Roumania, became independent, but 
the cessions to be made to the two former states were 



21 

somewhat reduced, while the territory which Rouraania 
was to receive in exchange for Bessarabia was some- 
what enlarged. 

b. The principality of Bulgaria was limited to the country 

between the Danube and the Balkans, including, how- 
ever, Sophia and its territory. 

c. The southern portion of Bulgaria, with it boundaries con- 

siderably narrowed toward the south and west, was left 
under the immediate rule of the Sultans, with the title 
Province of E. Roumelia, but received a separate 
militia, and administration under a Christian governor- 
general ; only in specified cases could it be occupied by 
regular Turkish troops. 

d. The Russian troops were to evacuate E. Roumelia and 

Bulgaria inside of nine months, Roumania inside of a 
year. 

e. The Porte ceded to Austria the military occupation and 

administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the 
military occupation of the Sandshak of Novi Bazar. 

/. The Porte was advised to cede a part of Epirus and Thes- 
saly to Greece. 

g. Russia received in Asia, Batoum, Kars, Adaghan, and 
some border territories. 

h. In Turkey, and all the states which had been separated 
from her, there should be political equality of all con- 
fessions." From Ploetz, 524; Lodge, 751 ; Muller, 550- 
552; McCarthy, II. 606-612. 

12. Bulgaria. Prince Alexander chosen ruler in 1879 ; favored 
native rather than Russian interests; hostility of latter power; Alex- 
ander kidnapped, 1886 ; loyalty of Bulgarians ; resignation of Alex- 
ander ; present administration. Muller, 556-563. For summary of 
the history of Bulgaria: The Balkan Peninsula. By Emile de 
Laveleye, 245, 246. 

13. Servia. 

a. Insurrection in the first part of the present century, 1815- 
1829, to throw off the power of Turkey ; success, and 
Milos acknowledged Prince ; constitution proclaimed in 



22 



1869; the coojplete independence of Servia from Tur- 
key secured by the treaty of Berlin. Statesman's Tear 
Book, 453; Laveleye : Balkan Peninsula, 212-214. 

b. Form of government; the Skuptchina. 

14. Roumania; formed from the union of Wallachia and Molda- 
via in 1861; election of Hospodar or Lord; constitution in 1866; 
independence declared in 1877, and guaranteed by Treaty of Berlin. 
Laveleye: Balkan Peninsula, ch. 12. 

15. Montenegro ; Declaration of Independence from Turkey in 
1700. 

16. Administration and government of Turkey. 

a. Fundamental laws based on the Koran ; the Multeka or 
decisions of Mahomet and his followers. 

h. Authority ; Sultan absolute ; Prime Minister at head of 
temporal government, with cabinet ; Sheik-ul-Islam at 
head of the Church. 

c. Country divided into villayets, provinces, and districts. 

Statesman's Year Book, 521. 

17. Religion of Turkey. Statesman's Year Book, 521, 522. 

18. Finance of Turkey; national debt; loans from western money 
markets ; English interests ; excise revenues and Egyptian tribute 
mortgaged. Laveleye: Balkan Peninsula, 317; Statesman's Year 
Book, 522. 

19. The Egyptian Question. 



LECTURE YIII. 



AUSTRIA, 1815-1887. 

AREA : POPULATION 

Austria, 115,903 sq. m. . . . . . 22.5 m. 

Hungary, 125,039 sq. m. . . . . . 16^ m. 

Austria nearly twice as large as New England. 



23 



1. At the close of the Napoleonic wars, the Germanic Confedera- 
tion was formed (June 10, 1815) ; 39 states and four free cities ; per- 
manent Diet at Frankfort. Studies in European Politics. By Grant 
Duff, 257-260 ; Life and Times of Stein. By J. R. Seeley. (Tauch- 
nitz ed.) IV. 31. 

2. The Constitution of the Confederation. 

a. Agreement of states not to declare war against each other 

or form injurious alliances. 

b. Disputes between states to be referred to central Diet. 

c. To contribute to confederate army according to population. 

d. Certain military forts made the property of the confedera- 

tion. 

e. Constitutional government to be established in each state. 

3. Weakness of the constitution ; people not represented in central 
Diet. 

4. Rivalry of Prussia and Austria ; defeated the national senti- 
ment for unity. 

5. Metternich ; reactionary statesman of Austria. Muller, 220, 
221 ; Lodge, 609 ; 622 ; 637 ; 651 ; 669 ; 688. McCarthy, IL 338 ; 
Grant Duff, 143, 144. 

"Metternich described liis system with equal simplicity and precision as an attempt 
neither to innovate nor to go back to the past, but to keep things as they were. In 
the old Austrian dominions this was not ditticult to do, for things had no tendency to 
move, and remained fixed of themselves ; but on the outside, both on the north and on the 
south, ideas were at work which, according to Metternich, ought never to have entered 
the world, but, having unfortunately gained admittance, made it the task of Govern- 
ments to resist their influence by all available means. Stein and the leaders of the Prus- 
sian War of Liberation had agitated Germany with hopes of national unity, of Parlia- 
ments, and of the impulsion of the executive powers of state by public opinion. Against 
these northern innovators, Metternich had already won an important victory in the forma- 
tion of the Federal Constitution. The weakness and timidity of the Kmg of Prussia 
made it probable that, although he was now promising his subjects a Constitution , he 
might at no distant date be led to unite with other German Governments in a system of 
repression , and in placing Liberalism under the ban of the Diet. In Italy, according to 
the conservative statesman, the same dangers existed and the same remedies were re- 
quired." Fyffe, 82. 

6. Agitation among the students and the Karlsbad conference, 
1820. Seeley : Stein, IV. 148, 149. Under leadership of Metter- 
nich, agreement was made to : — 

a. Restrict freedom of press ; 

b. Restrict university teaching ; 



24 

c. Forbid societies and political meetings. Midler, 12-18; 
Lodge, 638. 

7. The grant of constitutions among certain of the German states ; 
their recall. 

8. Death of Emperor Francis I., and succession of Ferdinand, a 
weak ruler, 1838. Midler, 163; Lodge, 688; 797; Grant Duff, 
150. 151. 

9. Revolution in France, 1848; spread through Europe; uprising 
in Hungary, Muller, 186-191 ; Lodge, 682-686. 

a. Revolution in Vienna; Lodge, 696; flight of Metternich. 

Muller, 221-230; Lodge, 688-690; Grant Duff, 158-164. 
h. March, 1848, resolves of meeting at Frankfort to call a 

national German constituent assembly. Muller, 221-230; 

239 ; Lodge, 690; Grant Duff, 260, 261. 

c. May, 1848, German jSlational Assembly. Muller, 215. 

d. Dissolution of old confederate Diet. Lodge, 702. 

e. Parties in the National Assembly. Right, conservative ; 

Left, liberal. 

" Right, holding to the idea of an imperial constitution in harmony with the separate 
governments ; Left, proclaiming the prmciple of the sovereignty of the people, and en- 
deavoring to establish a republican confederation by revolutionary means ; Right Centre, 
which hoped to persuade the governments to recognize the establishment of a constitu- 
tional monarchy for Germany; Left Centre, which insisted upon the unconditional sub- 
ordination of the separate states to a central monarchy, to be created on the basis of the 
sovereignty of the people ; it recommended that the views of the separate governments 
and such particular requirements of the states as were well founded should be respected." 
Ploetz, 493. 

f. Jealousy of different states occasioned weakness in the 
National Assembly. 

10. War between Austria and Sardinia, 1848-49; success of Aus- 
tria. Muller, 210, 211. 

11. Rebellion of Magyars, 1848-49 ; demand of Hungary for inde- 
pendence. McCarthy, I. 382-387 ; Muller, 241-248 ; Lodge, 695-698 ; 
Grant Duff, 152-157. Burdens of the peasantry. Francis Deak, 

17-20. 

a. Szechenyi. Francis Deak, 8. 

" Great schemes of social and material improvement also aroused the public hopes in 
these years. The better minds became conscious of the real aspect of Hungarian life in 
comparison with that of civilized Europe — of its poverty, its inertia, its boorishness. 
Extraordinary energy was thrown into the work of advance by Count Szechenyi, a noble- 
man whose imagination had been fired by the contrast which the busy industry of Great 
Britain and the practical interests of its higher classes presented to the torpor of his own 



25 

country. It is to him that Hungary owes the bridge uniting its double capital at Pesth, 
and that Europe owes the unimpeded navigation of tlie Danube, which he first rendered 
possible by the destruction of the roclvs known as the Iron Gates at Orsova. Sanguine, 
lavishly generous, an ardent patriot, Sz6chenyi endeavored to arouse men of his own 
ranli, the great and powerful in Hungary, to the sense of what was due from them to 
their country as leaders in its industrial development. He was no revolutionist, nor was 
he an enemy to Austria. A peaceful, political future would best have accorded with his 
own designs for raising Hungary to its due place among the nations." Fyffe, II. 481, 482. 

b. Kossuth. 

" On emerging from prison under a general amnesty in 1884, Kossuth undertook the 
direction of a Magyar journal at Pesth, which at once gained an immense influence 
throughout the country. The spokesman of a new generation, Kossuth represented an 
entirely different order of ideas from those of the orthodox defenders of the Hungarian 
Constitution. They had been conservative and aristocratic ; he was revolutionary : their 
weapons had been drawn from the storehouse of Hungarian positive law ; his inspiration 
was from the Liberalism of western Europe. Thus within the national party itself there 
grew up sections in more or less pronounced antagonism to one another, though all were 
united by a passionate devotion to Hmigary, and by an mibounded faith in its future. 
Szechenyi, and those who with him subordinated political to material ends, regarded Kos- 
suth as a dangerous theorist." Fyffe, II. 483. 

c. Deak. Francis Dedk, A Memoir, with Preface by Grant 

Duff. See in particular, ch. 3. 

" Between the more impetuous and the more cautious reformers stood the recognized 
Parliamentary leaders of the Liberals, among whom Deak had already given proof of 
political capacity of no mean order." Fyffe, II. 484. 

d. The race elemeuts of Hungary and Austria. In Austro- 

Hungarian empire, at present, 10 m. Germans; 12 m. 
Slavs ; 6 m. Magyars. 

e. Abdication of Ferdinand in favor of Francis Joseph I. 

f. Appeal of Austrian government to Russia to assist in put- 

ting down the rebellion. Francis Deak, ch. 14. 

g. Suppression of revolt; repression of revolutionary senti- 

ment ; reestablishment of old confederate Diet. 
11. War of Austria with France and Sardinia, 1859. 

a. Attempt of Austria to gain assistance of the other states 

of the confederation ; checked by Prussia. Muller, 278- 
280 ; Lodge, 719. 

b. Austria unsuccessful ; loss of Lombardy. 

c. Success of unity in Italy reawakened desire for unity in 

Germany ; two parties in Germany. 

(1). The Kleindeutsche party, wishing Prussia to be 
at the head of the Confederation to the exclusion of 
Austria ; 

(2). The Great German (Grossdeutsche) party, favor- 
ing the inclusion of Austria. Muller, 231. 



26 . 

12. Schleswig-Holstein question. Midler, 213-219; 267; 309- 
326; Lodge, 690, 691 ; 709; 727 ; McCarthy, II. 2U-'2b^. 

13. Austro-Prussian war, 1866. 

a. Causes. 3Mhr, 335-355; Lodge, 729, 730; McCarthy, 
II. 336. 

" The desire of the German people for greater tinity, and the impossibility of reaching 
a re-organization of Germany with a strong central government as long as two great pow- 
ers confronted one another in the German Confederation, one having a population largely 
non-Germanic, with non-Germanic interests. 

Special cause : the quarrel about the future of the North Albingian duchies, i^ustria 
wished the Crown Prince of Augustenberg to be recognized as Duke of Schleswig-Hol- 
stein, and join the confederation as a sovereign prince. Prussia demanded that in case a 
new small state, Schleswig-Holstein, was created : 

(1). its whole military force shoiild become an integTal part of the Prussian army and 
fleet, and its postal and telegraph systems be united with those of Prussia ; 

(2). that several important military posts should be given to Prussia, to enable her to 
undertake the necessary protection of the new state against Denmark. 

Reason for participation of Italy in the war : the favorable opportunity of acquiring 
Venice." Ploetz, 507. 

h. Results: Peace of Prague. Muller, 35 o-S 57. 

(1). " The Emperor of Austria recognized the dissolution of the German confederation, 
and consented to a re-organization of Germany without Austria, and agreed to annexa- 
tions contemplated by Prussia. A special condition secured Saxony from an alteration 
of her boundary. 

(2). Austria transferred to Prussia her rights in Schleswig-Holstein, with .the reservation 
that the northern districts of Schleswig should be remiited with Denmark, should inhabi- 
tants expi ess desire for such reunion by free popular vote (rescinded, 1878). 

(3). Austria paid 20 m. rix dollars for costs of the war. 

(4). At request of Prussia, Venice was ceded to Italy." Ploetz, 510. 

In consequence of the unsuccessful war, a more liberal reorganiza- 
tion of the state was undertaken. Muller, 356-367 ; Lodge, 730. 



LECTURE IX. 

GOVERNMENT OF AUSTRO-HUNGARY. 



A. AUSTRIA. 

1. The Constitution of 1867. Lodge, 731, 732. 
a. Provincial Diets. 

(1). 17 provinces ; each having a Diet of one assembly. 



27 

(2). Members of the Diet: (a). Archbishops and bishops; 
(6). Representatives of great estates ; (c). Repre- 
sentatives of towns; (d). Representatives of Boards 
of Commerce and Guilds. 

(3). Functions. 
b. Central Diet or Reiclisrath. 

(1). Upper House or Herren-haus ; consists, 1st, of the 
princes of the Imperial family (13) ; 2nd, of a num- 
ber of nobles (53), possessing large landed property, 
in whose families the dignity is hereditary ; 3rd, of 
the archbishops (10), and bishops (7), who are of 
princely title, inherent to their episcopal seat ; 4th, 
of any other life-members nominated by the Em- 
peror, on account of being distinguished in art or 
science, or rendering signal services to Church or 
State (105). Statesman's Tear Book, 7. 

(2). Lower House or Abgeordneten-haus. 

B. HUNGARY. 

1. Constitution dates from 891, when kingdom was first founded ; 
it has been suspended several times; and in 1849, when Hungary 
attempted to break away from Austria, it was abolished ; regranted 
in 1863 ; and in 1867, when Hungary was placed on equal footing 
with Austria in the Empire, the Emperor promised to observe it. 

Emperor of Austria entitled King of Hungary. Muller, 242, 243 ; 
Lodge, 698, 699 ; 731 ; McCarthy, I. 316 ; 382. 

2. Provinces of Hungary; Hungary, including Transylvania; 
Croatia or Slavonia ; town of Fiume. Muller, 301 ; 373. 

3. Legislature. 

a. House of Magnates. 

b. House of Representatives. 

C. THE EMPIRE. 

1. Empire composed of Austria and Hungary, or the Cisleithan 
and Transleithan kingdoms. Each kingdom, as shown, has its own 
parliament, ministers, and government ; while the connecting tie is a 



28 

common sovereign, army, navy, diplomacy, and a common parlia- 
ment called the Delegations. Statesman's Year Booh, 6 ; Francis 
Dedh, ch. 29. 

2. The Delegations. 

a. One-half from each kingdom. 
h. Jurisdiction. 

3. The three executive departments, Foreign Affairs, War, and 
Finance, responsible to the Delegations. 

4. Political parties and tendencies. 

a. The Czech (Tschek) movement ; establish an autonomous 
government for Bohemia on a par with Hungary. Con- 
temporary Review, Dec, 1884; 815-819. Known as the 
Autonomists or Federalists. Muller, 483 ; 588. 

h. Panslavism. Laveleye : Balkan Peninsula, 3, 4; 171, 172. 



LECTURE X. 



GERMAN CONFEDERATION AND THE GROWTH 
OF PRUSSIA. 

In 1806 the German empire came to an end ; Francis TI., Empe- 
ror of Germany, forced by Napoleon, resigned and retired to govern 
his own inheritance, Austria, under the title of Emperor of Austria. 
New confederation formed. Lodge, 592. Sime: History of Ger- 
many, 202. 

I. 1806-1815; Confederation of the Rhine; composed of 16 
states which were induced to unite by Napoleon under promise of 



29 

cessions of conquered territory from the rest of Germany. Lodqe, 
592-595. 

11. 1815-1866. 

1. Confederation of the German states. See Notes on Austro- 
Hungary ; Lodge, 637 ; 669 ; 687 ; Midler, 7-9. Sime : Germany, 209. 

2. Growth of Prussia. McCarthy, II. 348. 

a. Reforms introduced in that kingdom about 1810. Lodqe 
605-608. 
(1). Abolition of serfdom and prerogatives of feudal 

nobility; Lodge, 604; Seeley, II. 18-31. 
(2). Abolition of trade-guilds ; 
(3). Abolition of all restrictions to the right of property 

in land ; 
(4). More equal distribution of taxes ; 
(5). Compulsory education ; McCarthy, II. 481 ; 
(6). Introduction of the Landwehr system. 
h. In 1815 the King promised the people a constitution; 
opposition of Metternich and reactionary party, so that 
it was never fulfilled. Lodge, 630-637 ; Midler, 3-5 • 
9 ; Fyffe, II. 121-125; Sime, 224. 

c. The Burschenachaft or student fraternity; murder of 

Kotzebue and their suppression. Lodge, 638 ; Muller 
13-17; Fyffe, II. 127-129; 139-142. 

d. Period of depression. 

e. The Zollverein, 1833. Muller, 164, 165; 318, 319 • FvfFe 

II. 406. ' "^ ' 

"The idea of a uniform system of customs for the German States, iirst suggested at the 
Congress o Vienna m 1815, was acted upon by the government of pSssia, wh ch 
abolished all distmctions of customs throughout its territories, May 26, 1818, and invited 
other governments to unite for a similar purpose. The invitation was generally accepted^ 
and the result was the formation of the Zollverein, by which internal trade was free ft-om 

Si 8?°°'' ^ '"^°''" '^'*''°' ""^ '^''*'^' ""^^^^ °" ^°'' '^""^^ '***^^ *^'''* J°"^«d it." 

/. 1840, death of William III.; accession of Frederick Wil- 
liam IV.; hopes of reform; disappointment. Lodge, 
688; Muller, 165, 166; Fyffe, II. 496-498. 
g. Constitution granted 1847. 

(1). Landtag or central Diet assembled in Berlin. Lodge, 
688-690; Muller, 168; Fyffe, II. 498-502; Sime, 
233. 



30 



" Prussia herself had no parliament of the whole monarchy until 1847 ; up to that year 
there had been only local ' Landes Stande,' estates or diets for the several provinces. The 
liberal party had tv?o objects to struggle for, — the establishment or extension of free insti- 
tutions in the several states, and the attainments of national unity. . . . Now, in Ger- 
many, such liberties had not been known since primitive times ; and there were few seri- 
ous practical grievances to be complained of. From the tune of Frederick the Great the 
country had been well and honestly administered ; conscience was free, trade and indus- 
try were growing, taxation was not heavy, the press censorship did not annoy the ordinary 
citizen, and the other restraints upon personal freedom were only those to which the sub- 
jects of all the Continental monarchies had been accustomed. The habit of submission 
was strong ; and there existed in most places a good deal of loyalty, irrational perhaps, 
but not therefore the less powerful, towards the long-descended reigning houses. It was 
therefore hard for the liberals to excite their countrymen to any energetic and concerted 
action ; and when the governments thought fit to repress their attempts at agitation, this 
could be harshly done with little fear of the consequences. 

It was therefore only through the carefully guarded press, and occasionally in social or 
literary gatherings, that appeals to the nation could be made, or the semblance of an agi- 
tation kept up. There was no point to start from ; it was all aspiration and nothing 
more ; and so this movement, to which so many of the noblest hearts and mtellects of Ger- 
many devoted themselves (though the two gTeatest stood aloof), made during many years 
little apparent progress." Holy Roman Empire, By James Bryce, 415-417. 

h. Development of political parties ; 

(1). Liberals ; free institutions ; peaceful foreign policy. 
" Prussia Germanized, and not Germany Prussian- 
ized." 
(2). Conservative; extreme wing known as "Old Prussian 

party "; warlike and ambitions. 

(3). Junkers. Midler, 306. 

L Bismarck. Lodge, 109, ; 727-30; 737; 751; Midler, 306- 

332; 445-448; 460; 466; 550; 568; 632-9; 645-51; 

McCarthy, II. 246; 504; 508-9; 606; Si me, 24:5 ; for 

a sketch of Bismarck in his private life, Busch : Our 

Chancellor, II. ch. 7. 

" Distinguished for the acuteness of his political diagnosis, of unbending will, an 

ardent enthusiast for Prussian and German greatness, at the age of forty-seven he 

already had a checkered career behind him. In the United Landtag of 1847 he was the 

leader of the extreme right, and distinguished himself by his determined opposition to a 

national assembly and a constitution. He accepted for his party the nickname Junker, 

and replied to his opponents : ' Be assured that we for our part will bring the name of 

Junker to respect and honor.' As delegate to the Diet at Frankfurt, in 1851, he had an 

opportunity to observe Austria's influence over the second-rate and lesser German states, 

and to appreciate thoroughly Prussia's false position. Hitherto, in Jmiker fashion, he 

had overflowed with praise of Austria, but now ' there fell from his eyes as it had been 

scales,' as he himself said, and from that time he stood forward as her open and secret 

adversary. That he might not be compromised by Bismarck's sympathy for the cause of 

Italy, the King transferred him to St. Petersburg as ambassador in 1859. In 1862 he 

became ambassador at Paris, and had a chance to study his future rival. Napoleon. His 

words in the budget committee attracted universal attention : ' Prussia must collect its 

strength for the favorable moment, which has already been several times allowed to pass. 



31 

Prussia's borders are not adapted to sound health ui the political body. It is not by- 
speeches and resolutions of majorities that the great questions of the times are to be decid- 
ed,— that was the mistake of 1848 and 1849,— but by blood and iron." MuUer, 306, 307. 

j. 1866, annexation of Schleswig-Holstein, I^anover, Hesse- 
Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfurt. Lodge, 726-730 ; Mul- 
ler, 367; McCarthy, II. 244-7; Sime, 255. 
III. 1866-1871, North German Confederation. Lodge, 730, 731 ; 
Muller, 368. 22 states in this alliance (Bavaria. Baden, 
and Wurtemburg, being south of the Main, were ex- 
cluded). 

1. The constitution of the Confederation. 

a. Military forces were consolidated under the leadership of 

Prussia ; 
l. King of Prussia as President of the Confederation was 

vested with the control of foreign affairs, and also with 

the right of declaring war and peace with the consent of 

the federal Parlianoent ; 

c. All legislation for revenue for federal objects transferred 

to the control of the Parliament; 

d. Parliament consisted of — 

(1). Bundesrath or council of 43 members, of which Prus- 
sia was entitled to 17 ; this represented the govern- 
ment. Muller, 379 ; 383. 

(2). Reichstag, or popular branch, elected by manhood suf- 
frage. Midler, 378-383 ; 368 ; 381. 

2. War of Prussia with France, 1870; demand for German unity. 
McCarthy, II. 503-505: Lodge, lM-12,1 ; Muller, 409-460; Sime, 
256-264. 



LECTURE XL 



THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 

German empire, 1871 — x; by the terms of the constitution, the 
states of Germany formed an eternal union under the supreme direc- 



32 



tion in political and military affairs of the King of Prussia, who is 
made emperor. Lodge, liM ; Muller, 463-467 ; Sime, 267 ; Baring- 
Gould: Germany, 168-170. 

1. The Emperor (Kaiser) represents the nation internationally ; 
can declare defensive war ; make peace and treaties ; to declare 
offensive war, the Kaiser must have consent of the Federal Council. 
Statesman's Tear Booh, 101 ; Lodge, 1^1 ; Muller, 463-467. 

2. The Bundesrath, or Federal Council ; 62 members ; represents 
the governments; and appointed by them. Muller, 382, 383; 463 
(note) ; Baring-Gould, 170-172. 

3. The Reichstag or Diet ; 397 members, elected by universal suf- 
frage and ballot for a term of three years. Midler, 463 (note) ; Bar- 
ing-Gould, 172, 173. States of the Empire, Baring-Gould, 176- 
178. 



States of the Empire. 



Kingdom of Prussia 

" " Bavai'ia . . . 

" " Wiirtemberg .... 

" '• Saxony 

Grand Duchy of Baden .... 
" " " Meclilenburg-Schwerin . 
" " " Hesse .... 
" " " Oldenburg 
" " " Saxe-Weimar . 
" " " Mecklenburg-Strelitz 

Duchy of Brunswick 

" " Saxe-Meiningen ..... 

" " Anhalt 

" " Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 
" " Saxe-Altenburg .... 
Principality of Waldeck .... 

" " Lippe 

" " Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt . 

" " Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 

" " Keuss-Schleiz 

" " Schaumburg-Lippe . 

" " Keuss-Greiz 

Free town of Hamburg .... 

" " " Liibeck 

" " " Bremen 

Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine . 



Total 



Number of 
Members in 
Bundesrath 


Number of 
Deputies in 
Reichstag. 


17 


236 


6 


48 


4 


17 


4 


23 


3 


14 


2 


6 


3 


9 




3 




3 




1 




3 




2 




2 




2 




1 




1 




1 




1 




1 




1 




1 




I 




3 




1 




1 


4 


15 


62 


397 



33 



a. Annual sessions. 

h. Emperor can prorogue or dissolve the Reichstag ; if dis- 
solved, new elections are ordered. 

c. No initiative in legislation ; this controlled b}' the Emperor ; 
laws proposed by him, then submitted to Bundesrath, 
and, if approved, laid before the Eeichstag. The Bun- 
desrath can, however, propose legislation and, with the 
consent of the Emperor, submit it to the Reichstag. 
Recent party developments. 

a. Fortschritt party. 

h. National Liberals. 

c. Clericals. 

d. Social Democrats. 

e. The parties represented in the present Reichstag are the 

Conservative, Imperialist, National Liberal, Centre, New 
German Liberal, Polish, Protester, Socialist, Guelph. 



LECTURE XII. 



FRANCE, 1815-1870. 

L Royalty, 1814-1848. 

1815-1830, Charles X. and Louis XVIIL 
1830-1848, Louis Philippe. 

IL Republic, 1848-1852. 

in. Empire, 1852-1871. 

IV. Republic, 1871-X. 



34 



I. ROYALTY, 1814-1848. 

1. Upon the restoration of the Bourbons {Fyffe, II. 12-14 ; Lodge, 
638-641 ; Muller, 90), a liberal constitution was granted which pro- 
vided for : 

a. Limited monarchy. Fyffe, 11. 15, 16. 

h. Legislative power vested in two chambers ; the Upper 
House or Peers named by the King, and the Lower 
House or Chamber of Deputies elected by the people. 
Fyffe, IL 14, 15. 

c. Responsible ministers. 

d. Freedom of the press. 

e. Religious liberty. 

2. Reigns of Louis XVIIL and Charles X., Muller, 90-102; 
"gravitation towards a monarchy resting on the middle classes (bour- 
geoisie)." Fyffe, IL 14-19 ; 31-77; 356-368; Lodge, 657-660. 

3. Revolution of July, 1830; "The Three Days." Fyffe, IL 
368-381; Lodge, 660-662; ilfwZ/er, 99-101. 

a. Causes : 

(1). Freedom of the press suppressed. Fyffe, IL 368. 
(2). Representative government restricted; the number of 
electors limited by raising the suffrage qualification. 
Fyffe,\l.,^^%. 
h. Results : Charles X. abdicated ; Duke of Orleans suc- 
ceeded as Louis Philippe. Muller, 102-112. 

" In comparison with the Revolution of 1789, the movement which overthrew the Bour- 
bons in 1830 was a mere flutter on tlie surface. It was unconnected with any great change 
in men's ideas, and it left no great social or legislative changes behind it. Occasioned by 
a breach of the constitution on the part of the Executive Government, it resulted mainly 
in the transfer of administrative power from one set of politicians to another: the altera- 
tions introduced into the constitution itself were of no great importance. France neither 
had an absolute Government before 1830, nor a popular Government afterwards. Instead 
of a representative of divuie right, attended by guards of nobles and counselled by Jesuit 
confessors, there was now a citizen-king, who walked about the streets of Paris witli an 
umbrella under his arm and sent his sons to public schools, but who had at heart as keen a 
devotion to dynastic interests as either of his predecessors, and a much greater capacity 
for personal rule. The bonds which kept the entire local administration of France in 
dependence upon the central authority were not loosened; officialism remained as strong 
as ever; tlie franchise was still limited to a mere fraction of the nation." Fyffe, II. 379. 

c. Constitution changed. 

(1). Religious sects made equal in the eyes of the law. 



35 

(2). Censorship and all restrictions upon the press abol- 
ished. 

(3). Power of the King to suspend laws taken away. 

(4). The privilege of initiative in legislation extended to 
the Chamber of Deputies. 

4. Parties during the reign of Louis Philippe. 

a. Legitimists, desiring a king of the Bourbon family ; their 
candidate was the grandson of Charles X., the Count of 
Chambord, also called Henry V. Muller, 173. 

h. Orleanists ; since the death of Louis Philippe, his grandson, 
the Comte de Paris, has represented the party. Muller, 
197. 

c. Bonapartists ; in favor of the election of Louis Napoleon, 

grand-nephew of the great emperor. 

d. Republicans ; in favor of a republic. 

5. Reign of Louis Philippe ; causes leading to his overthrow : 
Fuffe, II. 414-418 ; 503 ; Lodge, 672-679 ; 682-686 ; Muller, 186-201. 

a. The laws of September, 1835, to restrict the press, on 

account of several attacks made upon Louis Philippe ; 
their unpopularity. 

b. Plotting of Louis Napoleon; 1836, unsuccessful attempt to 

raise an insurrection among the troops at Strasburg ; 
goes to America; 1841, again landed in France; declared 
himself emperor ; captured and imprisoned for six years. 

c. Failure of the government (Thiers) in its support of the 

ambition of Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, who attempted 
to make himself independent of Turkey, against the 
wishes of England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. 

" France proposed that all Syria and Egypt should be given in hereditary dominion to 
Mehemet Ali, with no further obligation towards the Porte than the payment of a yearly 
tribute. The counter-proposal of England was that Mehemet, recognizing the Sultan's 
authority, should have the hereditary government of Eygpt alone, that he should entirely 
withdraw from all Northern Syria, and hold Palestine only as an ordinary governor ap- 
pointed by the Porte for his life-time. To this proposition all the Powers with the excep- 
tion of France gave their assent." Fyffe, II. 457. 

d. Charges of avarice on the part of the king ; increased his 

wealth by business undertakings. 

e. Charge that the government was not sincere in its promise 

to England with respect to the Spanish marriage ; this 
weakened the English alliance. Fyffe, II. 504-506. 



36 

/. Scarcity and want in 1847, which aroused the Socialistic 
classes ; Louis Blanc ; reform banquets, and attempt of 
the government (Guizot) to prevent them ; riot ; abdi- 
cation of Louis Philippe. Fyffe, IL 506-513. 

" On the one hand were the Legitimists, aiming at the restoration of the elder branch 
of the Bourbons; on the other hand there were the Republicans, who wished to be rid of 
monarchy altogether. The government of Louis Philippe satisfied neither. It served as a 
transition, or temporary halting-place, in the progress of France towards the goal of ra- 
tional and stable republicanism, to which the great revolution tended. It was an " attempt 
to put new wine into old bottles." This inherent weakness of the Orleans rule, it would 
have been difficult by any means to neutralize in such a way as to avert sooner or later a 
catastrophe. The iinbending conservatism of Guizot — as seen in his refusal to extend 
suffrage — hastened this result. A government over which less than lialf a million of 
voters of the middle class alone had an influence could not stand against the republican 
feeling of the country. The middle class, on which the throne depended, became separated 
from the advanced party, to which the youth of France more and more rallied. Guizot 
was personally upright; but official corniption was suffered to spread in the last years of 
his administration, and bribery was used in the elections. These circumstances, added to 
the mortification of national pride from the little heed paid to France by the other pow- 
ers, weakened the throne. The failure of the gevernment to support the cause of liberty 
in Poland and Italy was another important source of its growing unpopularity." Fisher: 
Outlines of Universal History, 562. 

IL REPUBLIC, 1848-1852. 

Louis Napoleon chosen President; coup d'etat m l^bl. Lodge, 
709-715. Successive changes in the constitution. 

1. Jan. 1, 1852. " In the constitution thus granted to France, 

the form of liberty was maintained, but its spirit was 
suppressed. It consisted of a Legislative Chamber, a 
Senate, and Council of State. The Legislative Cham- 
ber was to be elected every six years by universal suf- 
rage, and the members of the Senate and the Council of 
State to be nominated for life. The President was 
elected for ten years." Ewald, 125. 

2. Jan. 15, 1852. "The French President promulgated a 

new constitution ; the whole executive power to be vested 
in the President, who is to be advised by a state council, 
a senate of nobles, and a completely powerless legislative 
assembly, whose transactions at the demand of five mem- 
bers may be secret." Eivald, 125. 

3. Dec. 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon declared Emperor. 

IIL EMPIRE, 1852-1871. 
1. Napoleon strengthened his position : 



37 



a. By cooperation with England in the Crimean war. 

h. By assisting Sardinia in ridding Italy of Austrian influence 

and rule. Napoleon did not venture far on this line of 

policy. 
c. Appeared as protector of Papal interests. 1860, French 

garrison at Rome. 

2. Power weakened. 

a. Dissatisfaction with his arbitrary rule. 

h. Growing importance and ambition of Prussia, especially 

after war with Austria, 1866 ; failure of France in 

attempting to secure more territory. 

3. War with Prussia, 1870-71. Mailer, 409-460 ; Lodge, 734-736. 

a. Causes. 
"General Causes: 

1. The idea entertained by a great part of the French nation, and kept alive by histori- 
ans, poets, and the daily press, of the reconquest of the left bank of the Rhine. 

2. The French, not understanding the long struggle of the German nation for political 
unity, saw in the consummation of this union only a forcible aggrandisement of Prussia, 
and m the victoi'y of the latter state over A.ustria an unpermissible encroachment upon 
their own military fame. 

Special Causes: 

1. The internal troubles of the government of Napoleon III. 

2. The rejection of the ' compensation ' demanded, since 1866, from the cabinet of Berlin, 
for the growth of Prussia, in extent and population. 

3. News of the approaching introduction of an improved weapon for the north German 
infantry, which threatened to put in question the superiority of the French chassepot. 

Immediate Cause: 
The election of the prince of Hohenzollern to the throne of Spain, which was repre- 
sented in Paris as a Prussian intrigue, endangering the safety of France. The request 
made by the French ambassador Benedetti in Ems of King William I. in person, that he 
should forbid the Prince of Hohenzollern to accept the Spanish crown, was refused. After 
the voluntary withdrawal of the Prince, the French government looked to the King of 
Prussia for a distinct announcement ' that he would never again permit the candidacy of 
the Prince for the Spanish crown.' King William refused to discuss the matter, and re- 
ferred Benedetti to the regular method of communication through the ministry at Berlin. 
This, and the telegraphic announcement of the proceeding, was represented by the Duke 
of Gramont as an insult to France." Ploetz, 513. 

h. Results. Muller, 460. 

(1). France ceded to German empire Alsace and Lorraine 

(4700 sq. m. ; popul. 1.5 m.). 
(2). Indemnity of 1965 m. within three years; until then, 

Prussian occupation. 



LECTURE XIII. 



FRANCE AS A REPUBLIC, 1871 — X. 

1. Presidential administrations : 

a. Thiers, 1871-1873. Muller, 474, 475. 

h. MacMahon, 1873-1879. Mailer, 475, 476. 

c. Grevy, 1879-1887. Muller, 620-629. 

d. Sadie-Carnot, 1887 — . 

2. Constitution of 1875. 

a. The Executive ; President of the Republic. 

(1). Elected by National Assembly, composed of Senate 

and Chamber of Deputies. 
(2). Term of office is seven yeai's ; reeligible. 
(3). Powers ; among others, initiate legislation concurrently 

with the two chambers ; cannot veto. 
(4). Assisted by Ministers (11 in number) who form the cabi- 
net ; these responsible to the Chamber of Deputies. 
h. Tlie Legislature ; Senate and Chamber of Deputies. 
(1). Senate ; 300 members. 

" The election of Senators is by an indirect process. In the first instance the commimes 
or municipalities of France, large and small, elect by a majority of their members, each 
one delegate or more, according to population. The delegates, after a lapse of two months, 
meet together, along with the members of each departmental Council-General, and the 
deputies of the department, who are ex-nfficlo senatorial electors, to choose the Senators. 
No other qualification is required for a Senator than to be a Frenchman, at least forty 
years of age, but by the act of 1884 all princes of deposed dynasties are precluded from 
sitting in the upper house. Generals or admirals on active service are also debarred." 
Statesman'' s Year Book, 63. 

(2). Chamber of Deputies. 

" The Chamber of Deputies is elected by universal sufErage, under the ' scrutin de liste,' 
adopted by the National Assembly, June 16, 1885. Each department forms a single cir- 
cumscription or electoral district, and chooses deputies in the ratio of one deputy to 70,000 
inhabitants, foreigners not included. The total number of deputies is 584, — 568 for France, 
6 for Algeria, 10 for the colonies. The Chamber of Deputies is elected for the term of four 
years. The President is bound to convoke them if demand is made by one-half the number 
of members composing each chamber. The President can adjoiu-n the chambers, but the 
adjournment cannot exceed the term of a month, nor occur more than twice in the same 
session. The Senate has conjointly with the Chamber of Deputies the right of initiating 
and framing laws." Statesman's Year Book, 63, 64. 

3. Present political complications. 



LECTURE XIY. 



RUSSIA. 

1. Early History. 

a. Not until the House of Romanoff succeeded to the throne, 
1613, did Russia begin to grow powerful; Ramhaud, I. 
254; 258-262. 

h. 1689-1725, Peter the Great; reforms; Wallace's Russia, 
310, 311; 385-389; Ramhaud, I. 296, 297; 303; II. 
22-40. Europeanize Russia ; his policy to make Russia 
a naval power and secure ports on the Baltic; Ramhaud, 
II. 9; Lodge, 268-270; 284-287. 

c. 1717-1721, war between Russia and Sweden, and cession of 

territory by Sweden. Ramhaud, II. 42-47. 

d. \11^, 1793, 1795, successive divisions of Poland. Ram- 

haud, II. 94, 95; 117-126. Lodge, 448; 469; 471. 

2. Nicholas I., Czar, 1825-1855. Ramhaud, \\. 11<o, 227; 254. 
Change from the policy of Peter the Great ; Russian forms and cus- 
toms insisted upon. Ramhaud, II. 229-232. European influences 
checked. Muller, 86, 87. Poland made a part of Russian empire, 
1832. Fyffe II. 390-398 ; Ramhaud, II. 238-243. 

" The late insurrection of Poland had determined Russia to put an end to its separate 
existence, and reduce it as much as possible to a Kussian province. The University of 
Warsaw was suppressed, the archives, libraries, scientific collections, etc., were removed 
to St. Petersburg, the Polish uniform and colors were abolished, and the Polish soldiery 
incorporated into Russian regunents. The leading Poles were relegated to the interior of 
the Empire, and it is computed that 80,000 Poles were banished to Siberia. Polish chil- 
dren were taken from their parents and carried mto the military colonies of Russia. Last, 
but not least, the Roman Catholic Church was persecuted agreeably to the Czar's Graeco- 
Kussian system." Ewald, 82. 

3. The Crimean war. Ramhaud, II. 248-258. 

4. Alexander II., 1855-1881. Ramhaud, II. 255. 

a. More liberal policy. Ramhaud, II. 258, 259. Midler, 
267. 



40 

h. Emancipation of the serfs ; gradual. Wallace, 485-509 ; 
Grant JDvff: Studies in European Politics, 71-85 ; Ram- 
laud, W. 260-266; Lodge, 746; Muller, 267. 

" By this decree the peasants attached to the soil were to he invested with all the rights 
of free cultivators ; the proprietors to grant to the peasants for a fixed regulated rental the 
full enjoyment of their close ; domestics to receive their full enfranchisement two years 
hence. To assist these measures in each district a court was to be established for the ques- 
tion of the peasants ; justices of the peace were to be appointed in each district to investi- 
gate on the spot all disputes; communal administrations were to be organized in the seig- 
neurial properties; a charter of rules was to be confirmed in each district in which were to 
be enumerated the amount of land to be reserved to the peasants in permanent enjoyment, 
and the extent of the charges to be exacted from them for the benefit of the proprietor. 
These charters were to be piit into execution within the term of two years, up to which 
time the peasants and domestics were to fulfil their former obligations without scruple." 
Eioald, 170. 

c. Growth of Nihilism; demands for a constitution ; the secret 

police ; transportation to Siberia. Muller, 569-572. 

d. Assassination of the Czar. Muller, 574. 

5. Alexander III. 

6. Central government of the empire. Wallace, 194-212. 

a. The Emperor ; absolute hereditary monarchy. 
h. The four councils or colleges. Statesman's Year Book, 
416, 417. 

(1). Council of the Empire. 

(2). Ruling Senate. 

(3). Holy Synod. 

(4). Committee of Ministers. 

" In its present form the Russian administration seems at first sight a very imposing 
edifice. At the top of the pyramid stands the Emperor, the ' autocratic monarch,' as Peter 
the Great described him, who has to give an account of his acts to no one on earth, but has a 
power and authority to rule his states and lands as a Christian sovereign according to his 
own will and judgment. Immediately below the Emperor we see the Council of State, 
the Committee of Ministers, and the Senate, which represent respectively the legislative, 
the administrative, and the judicial power. An Englishman glancing over the first volume 
of the code might imagine the Council of State to be a kind of parliament, and the Com- 
mittee of Ministers a ministry in our sense of the term, but in reality both are simply 
incarnations of the autocratic form. Though the Council is intrusted by law with many 
important functions, such as examining and criticisuig the annual budget, declaring war, 
concluding peace, etc., it has merely a consultative character, and the Emperor is not m 
any way bound by its decisions. The ministers are all directly and individually responsi- 
ble to the Emperor, and therefore the Committee has no common responsibility or other 
cohesive force. As to the Senate, it has descended from its high estate. It was originally 
intrusted with the supreme power during the absence or minority of the monarch, and was 
intended to exercise a controlling influence in all sections of the administration, but now 
its activity is restricted to judicial matters, and it is little more than a supreme court of 
appeal." Wallace, 197, 198. 

c. Bureaucracy. 



41 



7. Local government. 

a. Empire divided into general governments ; governments 
or provinces, and districts ; the officers and their func- 
tions. 

h. The parish or commune. Wallace, 108-113 ; Ramhaud, 
I. 41. 42 ; power limited as to economic affairs. 

" In European Russia the government of the parish, in so far as the lands of the peasan- 
try are concerned, and part of the local administration, is intrusted to the people. For 
this purpose, the whole country is divided into communes, which elect an elder, or execu- 
tive of a commune, as also a tax collector or superintendent of public stores. All these 
officers are elected at communal assemblies by the peasants from among themselves. The 
offices are more or less honorary. The communal assemblies are constituted by all the 
householders in the village, who discuss and decide all communal affairs. These communal 
assemblies are held as business requires. The communes are united into cantons, each 
embracing a population of about 2,000 males. Each canton is presided over by an Elder, 
elected at the cantonal assemblies, which are composed of the delegates of the communal 
assemblies in proportion of one man to every ten houses. The canton assemblies decide 
the same class of affairs as do the communal assemblies, but each concerning its respective 
canton. The peasants have thus special institutions of their own, which are submitted 
also to special colleges ' for peasants' affairs, instituted in each government." Statesman'' s 
Year Book, 418, 419. 

c. The Zemstvos for a more general administration of the 
affairs of the district and province. Wallace, 213-228. 



LECTURE XV. 



GREAT BRITAIN. 

THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT. 

1. The Crown. 

" Although Parliamentary Government has existed since the Revo- 
lution of 1688, the Crown has retained much of its influence, owing 
to its position as the head of society, to its powers of patronage, and 



42 



to that love of monarchy which is characteristic of the English peo- 
ple. The Sovereign has at present many legal prerogatives, most of 
which are practically vested in the ministry, such as the power of 
summoning, proroguing, and dissolving Parliament at pleasure, of 
refusing assent to any Bill, of making peace or war, of dealing with 
foreign nations by making treaties and receiving and sending ambas- 
sadors, of pardoning offenders after conviction, and of creating peers. 
Many of the feudal and fiscal prerogatives of the Crown, such as 
purveyance, coining, regulation of markets, and the like, have been 
surrendered. The Sovereign is, in fact, the head of the Church, the 
army, the law, the fountain of justice, mercy and honor, and has 
formally at any rate the supreme executive power as well as a co- 
ordinate legislative power with the Houses of Lords and Commons." 
Feilden, 26. 

2. The Cabinet. 

" It is theoretically an inner circle of the Privy Council, though 
practically distinct from it, but as a body is not recognized hy the law, 
its members deriving their position from the fact of their being mem- 
bers of the Council. It was natural for the Sovereign to select cer- 
tain members of the Council as his moi'e trusted and confidential 
advisers, and as early as the time of Charles I. we find the actual 
name Cabinet Council in use. Under the present system of ministe- 
rial government, 'the Ministry is in fact a committee of leading 
members of the two Houses. It is nominated by the Crown, but it 
consists exclusivelj' of statesmen whose opinions on the passing ques- 
tions of the time agree in the main with the opinions of the majority 
of the House of Commons.' At the present time ministers do not 
wait to be dismissed, as in the last century, but resign together, and 
the Executive is now so closely connected with Parliament as to 
represent the nation." Feilden, 44-46. 

" The next curious point about the cabinet is that so little is known about it. The meet- 
ings are not only secret in theory, but secret in reality. By the present practice no official 
minute in all ordinary cases is kept of them. Even a private note is discouraged and dis- 
liked. The House of Commons, even in its most inquisitive and turbulent moments, would 
scarcely permit a note of a cabinet meeting to be read. No minister who respected the 
fundamental usages of political practice would attempt to read such a note. The committee 
which imites the law-making power to the law-executing power — which by virtue of that 
combination is, while it lasts and holds together, the most powerful body in the state — is 
a committee wholly secret. No description of it, at once graphic and authentic, has ever 
been given. It is said to be sometimes like a rather disorderly board of directors, where 
many speak and few listen, though no one knows." Bagehot: English Constitution, 82. 



48 



a. The present Cabinet consists of : — 

1. Prime Minister, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs ; 

2. Lord High Chancellor ; 

3. Lord President of the Council ; 

4. Chancellor of the Exchequer ; 

5. Secretary of State for the Home Department ; 

6. Secretary of State for War ; 

7. F'irst Lord of the Treasury ; 

8. Secretary of State for the Colonies ; 

9. Secretary of State for India ; 

10. First Lord of the Admiralty ; 

11. Lord Chancellor of Ireland; 

12. Chief Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland; 

13. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster; 

14. President of the Board of Trade ; 

15. Secretary for Scotland. 
h. How chosen. 

" On the resignation or dismissal of a previous ministry, it is customary for the sove- 
reign to ' send for ' some eminent member of one or otiier of tlae Houses of Parliament, 
and to entrust him with the task of forming a new administration. It is his duty to select 
such minister-designate from the ranks of the majority of the House of Commons, and, 
further, perhaps (though this is a point on which some latitude of choice must naturally 
and necessarily exist), to fix upon that one of two or more eligible candidates for the trust 
who may appear the most likely to be acceptable to the majority of the party to which he 
belongs. But with the designation of this one person the initiative of the sovereign is at an 
end. According to modern usage the Premier alone is the direct choice of the crown, and 
he possesses the privilege of choosing his own colleagues, subject of course to the appro- 
bation of the sovereign. In the exercise of this privilege the Prime Minister then proceeds 
either with or without consultation with other leading members of his party, to nominate 
the persons to be appointed to the various executive offices. The whole number of persons 
thus nominated are in strictness entitled to the appellation of Ministers, while those ap- 
pointed to the more important of these offlces compose, either exclusively, or with one or 
two additions, what is called the Cabinet. It is to this latter and smaller body that the office 
of advising the Crown is confined. They, and they alone, are in the exact sense of the 
words ' The Government ' of the country. The Cabinet Minister is, as a matter of course, 
' sworn of the Privy Council,' and advises the Sovereign, according to legal theory, in his 
capacity of Privy Coimcillor alone, while that council itself at present takes no part what- 
ever in this duty of giving advice, nor is in any way responsible for the advice given by 
those particular Privy Councillors who form the Cabinet." Traill: Central Government. 
11-13. 

c. Responsibility to Parliament. 

(1). Censure and dismissal from office. ■* 
(2). Impeachment. 

d. Functions of the different members. 



(1). The Prime Minister or Premier. 



44 



" There is no such official known to the language of constitutional 
law as a ' Prime Minister.' Supreme as is the authority which the 
so-called ' Premier ' has in course of time established over his col- 
leagues, and complete as is their subordination to him, he is in theory 
only one among other ministers of the Crown, and his sole official 
title is derived from the department over which he nominally pre- 
sides. This department is nowadays the Treasury, and the office of 
First Lord of the Treasury has been held by the Prime Minister, 
either alone or in conjunction with another, ever since the year 1<S06. 
His position, however, in relation to the internal economy of this 
department is rather that of honorary president than of working 
chief ; and he is usually too much occupied in considering questions 
of the general administrative and legislative policy of the country to 
have time to attend to the departmental business of the office. This 
business is principally transacted by the other members of the Treas- 
ury Board," Traill, 31. 

(2). The Treasury Board. 

" The full official description of the persons who constitute this 
Board is that of ' Lords Commissioners for executing the office of 
Lord High Treasurer,' the said persons being the First Lord of the 
Treasury, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and three other officials 
known as ' Junior Lords.' The Treasury is still a Board of Com- 
missioners in name, and the patent under which the members of the 
Board are appointed still represents them as being of equal authority, 
with powers to any two or more of them to discharge the functions 
of the whole. But the Treasury has long since ceased to be a Board 
in anything but name: it is now practically a department presided 
over by a single head, the Chancellor of the Exchequer." Traill, 
32. 

Of this Board only the first Lord of the Treasury and the Chan- 
cellor of the Exchequer are, at present, members of the Cabinet. 
3. Secretaries of State. 

" Constitutionally speaking, there is but one Secretary of State ; 
for the five ministers who divide among them the departmental func- 
tions are all of co-equal and co-ordinate dignity, ail fully authorized to 
transact, if need be, each other's business, all equally competent to 
discharge those specific duties to the Sovereign which belonged to the 
Secretary of State, when as yet there was only one. Thus they are 



45 



the only authorized channels whereby the royal pleasure is signified 
to any part of the body politic, whether at home or abroad, and any 
one of them may be empowered to carry the Sovereign's commands 
at any time to any person. The counter-signature of a Secretary of 
State is necessary to the validity of the sign-manual, and this coun- 
ter-signature may be attached by any one of these five ministers. 
The Secretaries of State were formerly resident in the royal house- 
hold, and it is still the practice for one of them to attend the Queen 
during her occasional visits to parts of the kingdom. It is a rule, 
moreover, that one of them must always be present in the metropolis! 
They all have necessarily seats in the Cabinet ; and, necessarily, they 
are members of the Privy Council, and sit in one or other of the 
Houses of Parliament. The Secretaries of Foreign Affairs, the Colo- 
nies, and India, are appointed indifferently from either House. The 
Secretary for War, however, has now for some years been selected 
from the House of Commons, and an unbroken usage of nearly half 
a century has confined the Home Secretaryship to the popular Cham- 
ber." Traill, 60, 61. 

4. Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. 
"The government of Ireland is formally vested in a Viceroy, usu- 
ally styled the Lord Lieutenant, in abbreviation of his full official 
title of 'Lord Lieutenant-General and General Governor of Ireland." 
He is assisted by a Privy Council, consisting of fifty or sixtv mem- 
bers, whose sanction, like that of the English Privy Council, is neces- 
sary to give validity to many of the official acts of the Executive. 
The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland possesses nominally very extensive 
powers, but his actual freedom in their exercise is by no means com- 
mensurate with their ostensible extent. He acts under instruction 
from the Crown, conveyed to him by the ministry for the time being, 
whose business ' is to direct him in his proceedings, and to animad- 
vert upon his conduct if they see him act improperly, or in a manner 
detrimental or inconvenient to the public service, or displeasing to 
the Crown.' The Cabinet Minister, ordinarily responsible for 
advising and directing the conduct of the Lord Lieutenant, was at 
one time the Secretary of State for the Home Department ; and it is 
presumed that theoretically the responsibility still attaches to him. 
But in practice it has now devolved wholly, and, considering his sub- 
ordinate title, somewhat anomalously, on a functionary whose strict 



46 



official style is that of ' Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant.' 
The Secretary for Ireland, as he is popularly called, has, since the 
abolition of the Irish Parliament, become essentially the Prime Min- 
ister of the Viceroy. He wields great powers, which he is some- 
times called upon to exercise without communication with his chief, 
and he is the minister responsible to Parliament for every act of the 
Irish administration. He is invariably a Privy Councillor, and has 
always, at least of late years, been a member of the lower branch of 
the Legislature ; and the increasing frequency with which this part 
has in modern practice been associated with a seat in the Cabinet is a 
testimony to its augmented importance, and a proof of its virtual 
independence of the control of the Home Secretary." Traill, 78-80. 
5. The Foreign Secretary. 
" The Foreign Secretary is the official organ and adviser of the 
Crown in its intercourse with foreign powers, and upon him devolves 
the duty of conducting those international negotiations upon the suc- 
cess of which the most vital interests of his country, or of Europe 
at large, may on occasion depend. In affairs of this high moment 
the general line of policy to be pursued would, of course, be settled 
by the Cabinet collectively ; but the execution of the particular plans 
aureed upon must be largely left in his hands, and according to the 
amount of tact and address displayed by him in directing it, the min- 
isterial policy may to a great extent be made or marred." Traill, 
78. 

3. The Parliament. 

a. House of Lords. 

(1). In 1886 this was composed of: — 
5 Peers of the Blood Royal, 29 Viscounts, 

2 Archbishops, 24 Bishops, 

22 Dukes, 285 Barons, 

20 Marquesses, 16 Scottish representative Peers, 

118 Earls, 28 Irish representative Peers. 

(2). These hold their seats : — 

(a). By virtue of hereditary right ; 
{h). By creation of the Sovereign ; 
(c). By virtue of office, — P^nglish Bishops ; 
{d). By election for life, — Irish Peers; 
(e). By election for duration of Parliament, — 
Scottish Peers. 



47 

(3). Its powers. 

" From the Reform Act the function of the House of Lords has been altered in English 
history. Before that Act it was, if not a directing chamber, at least a chamber of directors. 
The leading nobles, who had most influence in the Commons and swayed the Commons, 
sat there. Aristocratic influence was so powerful in the House of Commons that there 
never was any serious breach of unity. When the Houses quarreled, it was as in the great 
Aylesbury case, about their respective privileges, and not about the national policy. The 
influence of the nobility was then so potent that it was not necessary to exact it. Since 
the Reform Act the House of Lords has become a revising and suspending house. It can 
alter bills ; it can reject bills on which the House of Commons is not yet thoroughly in 
earnest, — upon which the nation is not yet determined. Their veto is a sort of hypotheti- 
cal veto. They say, we reject your bill for this once, or these twice, or even these thrice, 
but if you keep on sending it up, at last we won't reject it." Bagehot: English Constitu- 
tion, 1G7, 168. 

" In theory it has a co-ordinate power with the King, and the 
House of Commons ; practically, it does not initiate important meas- 
ures, but confines itself to amending and revising Bills sent up from 
the Commons ; it is thus a most useful check on hasty legislation, 
whilst ou a matter on which the nation has really made up its minds 
the Lords are compelled to yield, e. g., the Reform Bill of 1832. It 
has the sole power of initiating Bills relating to the peerage, but can- 
not initiate or amend a money Bill." Feilden, 126. 

h. House of Commons, — 670 members, composed of : — 
(a). Knights of the shire, representing counties (377). 
{b). Burgesses, representing boroughs (284). 
(c). Representatives of Universities (9). 
c. Parliament is summoned by the Crown ; new Parliament 
in seven years. 



LECTURE XYI. 



A. PAELIAMEKTAHY AND ELECTORAL 
REFORMS. 

The term reform in English history is used with reference to 
representation in Parliament. 

1. Distinction between county and borough franchise. 

" The knight of the shire was a man of the county which elected 
him. The borough member was ordinarily a burgess of the borough 
which he represented. But the rule was not followed in the case of 
the county. When the position of a member of Parliament became 
a privilege, rich men evaded the law by being admitted to the free 
burghership of the town. The election in a borough was not con- 
ducted on the principle which was uniformly in force in the sur- 
rounding county. In some towns the whole of the inhabitants, in 
others the rate-payers, in others again the governing bodies, chose the 
representatives. Originally, indeed, the borough franchise was proba- 
bly wide, and included either the whole of the adult male inhabi- 
tants of the borough, or those of them, at any rate, who paid scot 
and lot, as the local and general taxes were called, or enjoyed the 
freedom of the community. But it was the policy of the Stuarts to 
limit the franchise, and the restrictions which were thus introduced 
wrere continued by decisions of the House of Commons after the 
Restoration. In consequence of these decisions, a great variety of 
franchises existed in different boroughs. 

These complicated and difficult franchises made the work of a 
returning officer no sinecure. When Romilly stood for Horsham in 
1807, only 73 electors voted; yet the poll-clerk was occupied for the 
best part of two days in taking down the description of every burg- 
age tenement from the deeds of the voters. In Weymouth, the right 
of voting was the title to any portion of certain ancient rents within 



49 



the borough ; and, according to Lord Campbell's autobiography, sev- 
eral electors voted in 1826 as entitled to an undivided twentieth part 
of a sixpence." Spencer Walpole: The Electorate and the Legislature, 
52; 54. 

2. Former evils. 

a. Eotten and nomination boroughs. McCarthy: Epoch of 

Reform, 25, 26. 

" The members of the House of Commons were mostly returned 
by decayed towns or little villages, and the inhabitants or electors 
uniformly supported the nominee of their patron. It was stated in 
1793 that 309 out of the 513 members, belonging to England and 
Wales, owed their election to the nomination either of the Treasury 
or of 162 powerful individuals. The 45 Scotch members were nomi- 
nated by 35 persons. In 1801, 71 out of the 100 Irish members 
owed their seats to the influence of 55 patrons. The House of Com- 
mons, therefore, consisted of 658 members, and of these 425 were 
returned either on the nomination or on the recommendation of 252 
patrons. 

Some boroughs had almost literally no inhabitants. Gatton was a 
park ; Old Sarum a mound ; Corfe Castle a ruin ; the remains of 
what once was Dunwich were under the waves of the North Sea. 
But the great mass of boroughs were a little more populous than 
these places, and contained a dozen, fifty, or even one hundred 
dependent electors." Spencer Walpole, 55, 56. 

b. Non-representation of large and important districts. 

" In 1831 the ten southern counties of England and Wales com- 
prised a population of 3,260,000 persons, and returned 235 members 
to Parliament ; the six northern counties contained a population of 
3,594,000 persons, and returned 66 members to Parliament ; Lan- 
cashire, with 1,330,000 people, had 14 representatives ; Cornwall, 
with 300,000 inhabitants, had 44 representatives. In round num- 
bers, every 7,500 persons in Cornwall, and every 100,000 people in 
Lancashire, had a member to themselves." Spencer Walpole, 58. 

c. Restricted suffrage. 

d. Bribery. 

3. Attempts at Reform before 1832. Advocated in 1745; by 
Lord Chatham in 1770; Molesworth: The History of England, 1. 



50 

4-8; after 1816 bills were introduced yearly. Molesivorth, I. 11-14; 
17. Opposition. 

4. Act of 1832. Fyffe, II. 419-421; McCarthy: Epoch of Re- 
form, ch. 6 ; Muller, 149, 150 ; Molesworth, I. ch. 2, 3, 4, consider the 

Eeform bill in detail. 

a. 56 rotten boroughs disfranchised. 

h. 30 boroughs lost one member ; 2 lost two members. 

c. 22 large towns given two members ; 20 one member. ^ 

d. County members increased from 94 to 159. 

e. Changes in the franchise ; extension. 

"Up to 1832 the county members had been invariably elected by 
an uniform constituency, — the county freeholders ; the borough mem- 
bers had been elected by different kinds of electors in different places. 
The Act of 1832 exactly reversed this condition. The complicated 
borough franchises were swept away ; and, except for the preserva- 
tion of the rights of freemen and freeholders, the borough franchise 
was confined to householders whose houses were worth not less than 
ten pounds a year. The county franchise, on the contrary, was 
enlarged by the admission of copyholders, of leaseholders, and of 
tenants whose holding was of the clear annual value of fifty pounds." 
Spencer Walpole, 62. 

5. Reform Act of 1867 ; redistribution, and reduction of franchise. 
For abstract of the Act: Ewald, 232-238. 3IcCarthy, ch. 51, 52, II. 
340-370 ; Molesworth, III. ch. 5, 271-355. 

6. Introduction of the Ballot. Ballot Act of 1872. Molesworth, 
III. 410, 411. 

a. "It is still felt by many who are most earnest vindicators of political liberty that the 
effect of the ballot must be to impair political conscientiousness by hiding out of sight the 
fact that the franchise is at least as much a trust to be publicly exercised as a right to be 
privately enjoyed." Amos: Fifty Years of the English ConstitiUion, f!9. 

b. " The ballot is a machuie to protect the individual voter, not against the nation on 
whose behalf he exercises the trust, but against all sorts of illicit pressure, outrage, clamor, 
intrusiveuess, curiosity and confusion, which, on so solemn an occasion as that of recording 
a vote for a member of the legislature, may disconcert even the strongest-minded voter, 
and which voters of average mental strength and intelligence may be wholly miable to 
bear up against." Amos : Fifty Years of the English Constitution, 39, 40. 

B. ENGLISH POLITICAL PARTIES. 

1. The different parties : 

a. Conservatives ; Tories, 



51 



h. Liberals ; Whigs. 

c. Liberal Unionists. 

d. Home Rulers. 
The administrations. 



1812-1830 

1830-1834 

1834-1835 

1835-1841 

1841-1846 

1846-1852 

1852 . 

1852-1855 

1855-1865 

1865-1866 

1866-1868 

1868-1874 

1874-1880 

1880-1885 

1885-1886 

1886 . 

1886- . 



Tobies ; Consbevatives. 



Lord Liverpool, Wellington. 

Peel. 

Peel. 

Derby. 

Pabnerston, Derby. 

Derby, Disraeli. 

Disraeli (Beaconsfleld). 

Salisbury. 



Salisbury. 



"Whigs : Liberals. 



Earl Grey. 

Melbourne. 

Lord John Russell. 

Aberdeen. 

Kussell. 

Gladstone. 

Gladstone. 

Gladstone. 



LECTURE XVII. 



IRELAND AND THE IRISH aUESTION. 

Popul. 5.1 m. ; area, 32,531 sq. m. ; 4 times Massachusetts. 

1. Ireland is divided into four provinces : Leinster, Munster, Con- 
naught, and Ulster; the three former. Catholic; latter, Protestant. 

2. History of Ireland before the Union (1801). 

a. 1495, Statute of Drogheda : 



52 



(1). Irish parliament not to be held except by consent of 

King of England. 
(2). No bill to be introduced into Irish parliament except 

by King's consent. 
(3). Recent English legislation should extend to Ireland. 
h. 1597. Rebellion of the Irish. Green: Short History of 
English People, 449-452. 

c. 1633. The "Thorough" policy of Wentworth. Green, 

509, 510. 

d. 1641. Irish massacre in Ulster; 30,000 Protestants slain. 

The period of Cromwell. Deane ; A Short History of 
Ireland, ch. v ; Green, 558. 

e. 1652. Act of settlement for Ireland. Laud of the Irish 

in Ulster, Munster, and Leinster was confiscated and dis- 
tributed among those who had advanced money for the 
war, and the soldiers. Papists who had not taken part 
in the rebellion received land in Connaught. 
f 1689-1801. The Roman Catholics of Ireland supported 
James II. ; after the Revolution, treated with great hard- 
ship. Roman Catholics excluded from Irish Parliament. 
Green, 670, 671 ; 772, 773. 
"A reward of £100 is offered for information against any priest who 
exercises his religious functions, for which the penalty is imprison- 
ment for life. Every Papist at the age of eighteen is to take the 
oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and subscribe the declaration 
against transubstantiation and the worship of saints, in default of 
which he is incapable of holding land by }5urchase or inheritance, 
and the property is to go to the next Protestant kin. No Catholic is 
to send his children abroad to be educated. N. B. This Act was 
rarely put into practice." Acland and Ransome : Political History, 
124. 

For the whole period before the Union, May.' Constitutional His- 
tory of England, II. ch. 16 ; Deane, ch. 7. 

3. Legislative Union of Great Britain with Ireland, 1801 ; Impe- 
rial parliament ; Ireland sent 32 members to House of Lords, and 
100 members to House of Commons. Deane, ch. 10; Green, 112, 
113. 



53 

Pitt not successful in attempt to repeal certain Acts against the 
Roinau Catholics. 

4. Emmet's rebellion, 1803. Deane, 137. 

5. Catholic emancipation, 1829. ^ea?ie, 147-156 ; (r/'ee?^, 778 ; 798. 
Catholics admitted to all offices except those of Regent, Lord 

Chancellor of England and Ireland, and Viceroy of Ireland. Daniel 
O'Connell. McCarthy, ch. 12. 

6. The tithe war; Molesworth, I. 293; 303; 373; 385; 11. 18; 
Deane, 156-168; 178; McCarthy; Epoch of Reform, q\\. 8. 1838, 
Irish poor law. 

" It is shown that the state church included little more than one-tenth of the people, that 
in 150 parishes there was not one Protestant, and in 860 parishes less than 50." 

7. Agitation for Repeal, 1843. Deane, 185-190; McCarthy, I. 
182-203; Epoch of Reform, 191-194. 

In this agitation, O'Connell condemned the use of physical force, 
and hoped to dissolve the Union by peaceful methods ; this policy 
was too cautious for the more radical portion of his followers, and 
there was consequently a secession known as the Young Ireland 
Movement. McCarthy, I. 302-317; Deane, 196-202; Epoch of Re- 
form, 195. 

8. Potato famine, 1847; emigration. Z^eane, 190-193 ; McCarthy, 
I. 277-282. 

9. Feuianism. Deane, 203-211; McCarthy, II. 373-390. 

10. Disestablishment. Deane, ch. 14; McCarthy, II. 450-454; 
463-471. 

11. The land question; Deane, ch. 15; McCarthy, W. 471-479; 
land owned largely by few persons : absenteeism ; evictions ; rack- 
rent system; Ulster tenant right. Deane, 223; McCarthy, II. 473, 
474. 

a. First Land Act, 1860. Attempt to introduce freedom of 

contract between the owner of the land and the tenant. 

Before this difficult for tenant to buy land. Free sale 

made possible. 
I. Second Land Act, 1870. For Gladstone's speech, see 

Molesworth, III. 385-388; McCarthy, II. 477; Deane, 

230-237. 

(1). Compensation to tenant for disturbance by landlord, 
except in case of eviction for non-payment of rent. 



54 



(2). Compensation for improvements. 

(3). Possible for tenants to borrow two-thirds of purchase 
money necessary to buy their holding from the Gov- 
ernment. 

c. Third Land Act, 1881; the "three F's." Deane, 238, 

239 ; Midler, 585, 586. 

(1). ''If a yearly tenant thinks his rent too high, he may 
go before the Land Commission Court, and get a 
rent fixed. This rent cannot be raised for fifteen 
years, and then only by the Court which fixed it. 
This privilege is called ' Fair Rent.' 

(2). When a tenant has a fair rent fixed, he cannot be 
evicted by his landlord, except for non-payment of 
rent, for dilapidation, persistent waste, or the breach 
of some other statutory condition. This privilege 
is called, ' Fixity of Tenure.' 

(3). Every yearly tenant has now an interest in his hohi- 
ing which he can sell. Thus a tenant wishing to 
give up his farm can sell the right of succession for 
a sum equal to several years' purchase of the rent. 
This privilege is called, ' Free Sale '." 

d. Land Purchase Act of 1885. Deane, 239, 240. 

" If a tenant wishes to buy his holding, and arranges with his 
landlord as to terms, he can change his position from that of a per- 
petual rent payer into that of the payer of an annuity terminable at 
the end of forty-nine years, the Government supplying him with the 
entire purchase money, to be repaid during those forty-nine years at 
four per cent. This annual payment of £4 for every £100 borrowed 
covers both principal and interest. Thus, if a tenant already pay- 
ing a statutory rent of £50, agrees to buy from his landlord at twenty 
years' purchase, or £1000, the Government will lend him the money, 
his rent will at once cease, and he will pay, not £50, but £40 yearly, 
for forty-nine years, and then become the owner of his holding free 
of all charge." 

12. Coercion. 

13. The Home Rule party, 1870. McCarthy, II. 542-545. Isaac 
Butts, 1870-75 ; Shaw, 1875-77 ; Parnell, 1877—. 



55 

14. Gladstone's Home Rule Bill. 

15. The Crimes Act. 

16. The Liberal Unionists. 



LECTURE XVIII. 



A. COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF GREAT 
BRITAIN. 

General References : Colonies and Dependencies. By Cotton 
and Payne. European Colonies. By E. J. Payne. Colo- 
nial Policy and Progress, in The Reign of Queen Victoria, I. 
403-559. 

1. Geographical distribution of P^nglish colonies. 

For full list with date of acquisition, etc., see Statesman's 
Tear Book, 286-289. 

Asia 1.84 m. sq. miles; 261 m. popul. 

Africa 45 m. sq. miles ; 2.8 m. " 

America. . . 3.64 m. sq. miles ; 6.2 m. " 
Australasia . 3.26 m. sq. miles; 3.6 m. " 
Europe 119 sq. miles; 177,000 " 

Total, 9.21 ra. sq. m. 274.1 m. popul. 

2. History and form of government. 

a. Possessions in Asia ; see Lectures I. and II. 

b. Australasia ; see Lecture V. 

c. Possessions in America ; see Lecture XXIII. 

d. Possessions in Europe ; Gibraltar, Heliogoland and Malta. 



56 



e. Possessions iii Africa ; crown colonies, except Cape Colony, 

which has a responsible government, and Natal, which 

possesses a representative government. 

(1). Cape Colony, or Cape of Good Hope. Payne: Euro- 

^ pean Colonies, 185-191. Settled by the Dutch; 

since 1806 possessed by England. 

(2). jSatal. Payne, 191-195. Declared an English colony 

in 1843. 
(3). The Free States ; Boers. 
" These districts are occupied parly by natives and partly by law- 
less Europeans of mixed race, chiefly Dutch, whose ancestors have 
emigrated in past times from the Cape Colony, and who are there- 
fore called ' Boers.' Though the land which they inhabit belongs to 
Great Britain, so far as any civilized power has claims to it, and 
though they themselves are legally subjects of the British Crown, 
they have practically cast off England, and England has practically 
cast off them." Colonies and Dependencies, 151. 

(4). Confederation of African colonies. An Act was 
passed by the English Parliament in 1877, making 
this possible. 
f. Island possessions. 

3. Commercial importance. Colonies and Dependencies, 120-125 ; 
The Beign of Queen Victoria, I. 457, 458. One-third of British 
exports goes to the colonies. Colonies and Dependencies, 121. 

4. England's colonies compared with those of France and Ger- 
many. 

a. France. 885,000 sq. m., or less than one-tenth of Eng- 
land's. Colonies represented in the French Senate and 
Chamber of Deputies, and politically form part of the 
Republic. 

h. Germany. Colonial possessions as yet not important. 
Change of policy in 1884, with extensive annexations. 

B. IMPERIAL FEDERATION. 



LECTURE XIX. 



DISRAELI AND GLADSTONE. 



LECTURE XX. 



A. ITALY AND THE STRUGGLE FOR UNITY. 

1. Italy in 1815 ; Muller, 23, 24. By the Congress of Vienna, Lom- 
bardy and Venetia were ceded to Austria. 

a. In northern part of Italy, the four duchies of Tuscany, Par- 
ma, Modena, and Piacenza, ruled by princes of the Haps- 
burg House. 

h. In central Italy, the Papal States. 

c. Kingdom of Naples, then ruled by one of the Bourbon 

family of France. Fyffe, II. 178-180. Kingdom of the 
Two Sicilies. Lodge, 631, 632. 

d. Northwestern provinces, ruled by the King of Sardinia. 
(1). History of the House of Savoy. Dicey: Victor Em- 
manuel, 18-25. 

(2). In 1815, kingdom of Sardinia consisted of Sardinia, 
Piedmont, Savoy, Nice, Turin, aud Genoa. 

2. Reactionary policy and influence of Metternich in Italy after 



58 

1815 ; Austrian influence supreme. Dicey: Victor Emmanuel, 15-17; 
Muller, 23-28 ; Lodge, 643, 644. 

a. Old constitutions reestablished. 

h. The inquisition. 

c. Restriction of the press. 

d. French ideas extirpated. 

3. The Carbonari, 1820; secret society. Fyffe, II. 180-182; 
Lodge, 644; Muller, 24, 25 ; 29 ; 129-131. 

4. Attempt at revolution, 1831, suppressed by Austria. Lodge, ^11. 
"The revolution of 1831, which affected the States of the Church, 

Modena, and Parma, had been suppressed, like the still earlier rebel- 
lions in Naples and Piedmont, by Austrian intervention. If revolu- 
tion had fair play in Italy, it was sure of the victory. It was only 
foreign power for which it was not yet a match. Hence, all the hatred 
of the Italians was directed against foreign rule as the only obstacle 
to the freedom and unity of the peninsula. As in the times of Bar- 
barossa and his grandson, so also in the forties the watchword was : 
' Death to the Germans ! ' by which the Austrians were now meant. 
The secret societies and the exiles in communication with them — 
especially Joseph Mazzini, who issued his commands from London — 
took care that the national spirit should not be buried beneath mate- 
rial interests, but should remain ever wakeful." Muller, 202. 

5. Political parties, 1840: 

a. Red Republicans; Mazzini. Fyffe, II. 468; Muller, 170; 

Lodge, 692. Garibaldi. 
h. Federalists ; federation with liberal constitutions ; favored 

by Pius IX. (1846). Fyffe, II. 471-474: ; Lodge, 692. 
c. Constitutional Monarchists ; state, a constitutional monarchy, 

under the King of Sardinia, Charles Albert. Fyffe, 11. 

469-470. 

6. Revolution of 1848. Muller, 202-211. 

' a. Revolution in Sardinia ; abdication of Charles Albert in 
favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel. Muller, 208-211 ; 
Lodge, 693; 700. 

b. Revolution in Rome ; sympathy for Sardinians, and demand 

that Pius IX. declare war against Austria ; refusal. Lodge. 
693 ; 695 ; Republicans force the Pope to withdraw ; 
French assistance to the Pope ; French occupation. 



59 



c. Revolution in Naples. Lodge, 693. 

d. General failure. Lodge, 700, 701. 

" All Italy was again brought under its old masters. The expelled 
princes returned ; the Austrians occupied Bologna and Ancona ; and, 
owing to the valor of their armies and the skill of their generals, their 
dominion seemed invincible. The storm that had raged over the whole 
peninsula had subsided, and the Italian sun smiled once more; but 
Italian hatred of foreign rule grew ever darker and darker. They 
thought that they now knew the country which under more favorable 
constellations would renew the fight with Austria. Notwithstanding 
Custozza and Novara, the Savoyard cross continued to be the hope of 
Italy." Mutter, 211. 

7. Growth of Sardinia. Lodge, 111. 

a. Cavour. 

" The keystone of Cavour's policy was a conviction that the freedom of Italy could only 
be achieved with external assistance. He made it his object to obtain for Piedmont the 
respect and the friendship of the European powers, and he sternly repressed the revolu- 
tionary projects of Mazzini and his associates, which alienated all upholders of orderly 
government." Lodge, 717. 

b. Sardinia joined France in war against Austria, 1859. Mid- 

ler, 275-291 ; Lodge, 719-721. 
(1). Cause : Austria perceived that her influence in Italy 
was rapidly disappearing. 
" A subscription was raised in the chief towns of the peninsula to assist in the fortifica- 
tion of Alessandria. Austria was bitterly exasperated, and the Austrian minister was recalled 
from Turin. It was evident that the struggle could not be long delayed. Sardinia could 
not hope to contend single-handed with Austria, and relied for assistance upon the sympa- 
thies of Napoleon III. 

Austria refused to allow that Sardinia should be represented at a Congress to settle the 
afEairs of Italy, and finally sent an ultimatum to Turin demanding disarmament within 
three days under penalty of immediate war. This was exactly what Cavour was waiting 
for." Lodge, 718, 719. 

(2). Result. Lodge, 720 ; Ploetz, 502. 

(a). Emperor of Austria ceded Lombardy to Napo- 
leon III., who surrendered it to Sardinia. 

(b). Italy to form a confederation under Presidency 
of Pope. 

(c). Sovereigns of Tuscany mid Modena who had been 
expelled were to be reinstated. 

c. This latter provision was not observed ; annexations to Sar- 

dinia ; Lodge, 1'2'2 ; satisfaction made to France by giving 
her Savoy and Nice ; Naples was taken. Lodge, 723, 724. 



60 



d. 1861, Victor Emmanuel assumed title of King of Italy ; all 
Italy except Venice and Rome under his rule ; Florence 
made the capital. 

8. Italy as a kingdom. 

a. 1861, the first Italian Parliament. ' 

h. 1866, Venetia added, after the Austro-Prussian war. Lodge, 
731. 

c. 1871, French troops recalled from Rome during Franco- 
Prussian war ; Victor Emmanuel seized Rome. 

9. Government of Italy. 

a. Constitutional monarchy ; constitution granted to Sardinia 

in 1848. 
h. Executive ; king who rules by responsible ministers. 
c. Legislature. 

(1). Senate composed of princes of the royal house and of 
life members nominated by the king ; " a condition 
of the nomination being that the person should 
either fill a high office, or have acquired fame in 
science, literature, or other pursuit tending to the 
benefit of the nation, or finally should pay taxes to 
the annual amount of about $600." 
(2). Chamber of Deputies ; elected by ballot by citizens 
who can read and write and have a small property 
qualification. 
(3). Sits for five years ; can be dissolved at any time by 
king. 

10. The position of the See of Rome. 

a. The Supreme Pontiff. " By the terms of the royal decree 
of Oct. 9, 1870, which declared that 'Rome and the 
Roman provinces shall constitute an integral part of the 
Kingdom of Italy,' the Pope or Roman Pontiff was ac- 
knowledged supreme head of the Church, preserving his 
former rank and dignity as a reigning prince, and all 
other prerogatives of independent sovereignty." States- 
man's Tear Booh, 338. 

h. College of Cardinals. 

c. Sacred Congregations; at present 20 in number. 



61 



B. SWITZERLAND. 

Area, 15,800 sq. m. ; population, 3 m. 

1. Government. Switzerland is a confederation of 22 cantons. 

a. Parliament ; this is composed of two chambers, and is not 
only the legislative but the executive authority. 
The State Council represents the different States as does 
the Senate of the United States, while the National 
Council is based on population. 

h. The local government and independence of the several can- 
tons. In some of the cantons the Landesgemeinde or 
popular assemblies assemble in the open air and make 
laws. 

c. The Referendum ; by this institution laws made by the 
legislature may or must be submitted to the people, for 
their approval by popular vote, on demand of a certain 
number of electors. 

2. Recent history. The most important operations in this century 
concern changes in the constitution of the central government. From 
the standpoint of general European politics, its history is not event- 
ful. 



LECTURE XXI. 



A. SPAIN. 

Area, 197,000 sq. m. ; population, 17 m. 
By the Congress of Vienna, the Bourbons of the old dynasty 
were restored to power, and the government established by Napoleon 
was set aside. 

1. Ferdinand VII. 

a. Restored in 1814. Muller, 43 ; Grant Duff, 5. Rule of 



62 



the " Serviles "; despotism ; bitter opposition to the Con- 
stitutionalists ; 50,000 political prisoners. 
h. Revolution in 1820. 

" The patriots of 1812 could no longer endure in patience 
the pain and need of their country, and their rage dis- 
charged itself, in the years 1814 to 1819, in nine attempts 
at revolution, which, as the work of individuals and repre- 
senting little force, collapsed like riots, and were suppressed 
with small trouble." Mailer, 44. Ferdinand forced to 
swear obedience to the constitution, which had first been 
adopted in 1812. 
c. Intervention and invasion of the French, 1823, to support 
Ferdinand in his contest with the Cortes ; constitutional 
government defeated. Muller, 48-50. 
2. Death of Ferdinand, 1833; Muller, b^ ;* Lodge, 679; civil war, 
1833-1840; Muller, 143-146. Isabella IL, daughter of Ferdinand, 
supported by the constitutional party. 

a. The Queen Eegency ; revolt of the Carlists, supporters of 

I)on Carlos, brother of Ferdinand, or Absolutists. 
h. 1837, the Queen Regent took the oath to support the 
revised constitution. Muller, 146 ; Grant Duff, 8. 

c. Continued insurrections. Grant Duff, 10-13. 

d. 1843, Isabella declared of age and assumed the govern- 

ment. 

" Thereby gate and doors were opened to the French influence, and the game of intrigue 
and reaction commenced. In 1845 tlie constitution of 1837 was altered in the interests of 
absolutism. The freedom of the press was restricted, tlie national guard abolished, and the 
Cortes relegated to an existence even more nominal than that of the French Cliambers." 
Muller, 147. 

e. A third Constitution, 1845. 

" We have already seen that the Constitution of 1837 was less 
liberal than that of 1812. That of 1845 was in its turn far less 
liberal than its predecessor. The liberty of the press was curtailed ; 
the Senate became a nominated, not an elective, body ; the Cortes 
lost its right of assembling by its own authority, in case the Sover- 
eign neglected to summon it at the proper time ; and the principle of 
the national sovereignty disappeared from the preamble. The most 
significant change, however, in the circumstances of , the hour was 
that which precluded the necessity of the approbation of the Cortes 



68 

as a preliminary to the royal marriage. This was the event which 
was the pivot of intrigue for several years." Grant Duff, 15, 16. 

f. Spanish marriage, 1846. Lodge, 680. 

g. Insurrection in 1868 ; despotism of Isabella and rule of 

bigotry ; Muller, 406 ; Lodge, 733 ; Isabella obliged to 
escape to France ; search for a king ; Prince of Hohen- 
zollern offered the throne ; the Franco-Prussian war. 

3. Amadeo, the second son of Victor Emmanuel of Italy, elected 
king, 1870-1873. Muller, 478; Lodge, 738. 

" Amadeo's government, under wlaich Serrano was the first minister-president, was one 
continued scramble for office on the part of the regular monarchists, while the Carlists and 
Republicans busied themselves in organizing insurrections in the north and south respec- 
tively. Serrano and Topete, Sagasta and Zorilla, gained and lost office with confusing rap- 
idity. The king held fast to the constitution of 18G9, but was bitterly hated by the powerful 
nobles and the clergy as a stranger, and the son of Victor Emmanuel." Midler, 478. 

Finally forced to abdicate. 

4. Republic, 1873-75. 

" The programme of the new rulers was : a federative republic for 
Spain, with self-government of the individual states, after the pattern 
of Switzerland and the United States ; no centralization ; abolition 
of the standing army ; absolute separation of the Church and State ; 
proclamation of the rights of the individual on the basis of a demo- 
cratic constitution and under the authority of the law." Muller, 
479. 

a. Castelar, President of the Republic ; resigned. Muller, 
479, 480. 

h. Serrano, military dictator. Midler, 480. 

5. Alphonso II., son of Queen Isabella, 1875-1886; continued 
revolts of the Carlists; fiual suppression. Muller, 599-601. 

a. Ministry of Canovas. Muller, 600, 601. 

h. Ministry of Sagasta, 1881 ; Liberals obtain office. 

6. Alphonso XIII., 1886. Regency of the Queen. 

7. Government and Constitution. 

a. Monarchy, controlled by a constitution ; responsible minis- 

ters. 

b. The Legislative power is the Cortes, composed of a Senate 

and Congress which are equal in authority. 

B. GREECE. 

Area, 25,000 sq. m. ; three times Massachusetts. Population, 2 m. 



64 

1. From the 16th century until 1821-1829 Greece was governed 
as a province of Turkey. 

" The forward movement of the Greek nation may be said, in gen- 
eral terms, to have become visible during the first half of the eight- 
eenth century. Serfage had then disappeared ; the peasant was 
either a freeholder or a farmer, paying a rent in kind for his land. 
In the gradual and unobserved emancipation of the laboring class, 
the first condition of national revival had already been fulfilled. The 
peasantry had been formed which, when the conflict with the Turk 
broke out, bore the brunt of the long struggle. In comparison with 
the Prussian serf, the Greek cultivator at the beginning of the 
eighteenth century was an independent man ; in comparison with the 
English laborer, he was well fed and well housed. The evils to 
which the Greek population was exposed, wherever Greeks and 
Turks lived together, were those which brutalized or degraded the 
Christian races in every Ottoman province. There was no redress 
for injury inflicted by a Mohammedan official or neighbor. If a 
wealthy Turk murdered a Greek in the fields, burnt down his house, 
and outraged his family, there was no court where the offender could 
be brought to justice. The term by which the Turk described his 
Christian neighbor was ' our rayah,' that is, ' our subject.' A 
Mohammedan landowner might terrorize the entire population around 
him, carry off the women, flog and imprison the men, and yet feel 
that he had committed no offence against the law ; for no law existed 
but the Koran, and no Turkish court of justice but that of the Kadi, 
where the complaint of the Christian passed for nothing." Fyffe, 

II. 238, 239. 

a. Phanariotes. 

h. Klephts. 

c. HetEeria. Fyffe, II. 265-270. 

2. The Greek Church. Fyffe, II. 243, 244 ; 249, 250. 

3. War of Independence, 1821-1829. Lodge, 650-657. 

a. Unsuccessful rising of Ipsilanti. 
h. General revolt. Fyffe, II. 273-285. 

c. Battle of Navarino. Fyffe, II. 330-334. 

d. Philohellenism. 

e. Presidency of Capodistrias ; Fyffe, II. 345-348 ; disputes 

over the new boundaries ; civil war. Fyffe, II. 353. 



65 

4. Greece a kingdom, 1830. Lodge, 657, 
a. Kiijg Otho, 1833-1863. 

" A frontier somewhat better than that which had been offered to Leopold was granted 
to the new sovereign, but neither Crete, Thessaly, nor Epirus was included within his 
kingdom. Thus hemmed in within intolerably narrow limits, while burdened with the ex- 
penses of an independent state, alike unable to meet the calls upon its national exchequer, 
and to exclude the intrigues of foreign courts, Greece offered during the next generation 
little that justified the hopes that had been raised as to its future. 

Poor and inglorious as the Greek kingdom was, it excited the restless longings not only 
of Greeks under Turkish bondage but of the prosperous Ionian Islands under English rule ; 
and in 1864 the first step in the expansion of the Hellenic kingdom was accomplished by 
the transfer of these islands from Great Britain to Greece. Our own day has seen Greece 
further strengthened and enriched by the annexation of Thessaly. The commercial and 
educational development of the kingdom is now as vigorous as that of any state in Europe ; 
in agriculture and in manufacturing industry it still lingers far behind." Fyffe, 354, 355. 

h. Representative constitution, 1843. 

c. Agitation for extending the northern boundary. 

" Greece was very much dissatisfied with the Peace of Paris, which guaranteed the Turk- 
ish boundaries. Henceforward King Otho had a diificult position. The nation could not 
forgive him for having shown no enterprise or military ambition during the Crimean war ; 
and from that time on he was regarded as wholly unfit to carry out the ' great idea ' of a 
great Greece and transfer his residence to Constantinople. 

The Hellenes asked themselves whether that which the Italians had striven after with 
almost complete success was to be forbidden them ; whether they did not have the same 
right to give ear to their Grecian brothers who were sighing under the yoke of a barbarian 
people, and unite into one state all the Grecian provinces of the Olympian peninsula." 
Muller, 266. 



LECTURE XXII. 



A. HOLLAND OR THE NETHERLANDS. 

« 

1. 1795-1806. Batavian Republic. 

2. Kingdom of Holland, 1806-1815 ; Louis Bonaparte, king. 

3. 1815, Kingdom of the Netherlands, equalled former Holland 
and Austrian Belgium ; under William I. 



m 



" The kingdom of the Netherlands, created by the Congress of 
Vienna, had been formed by the enforced union of two utterly dif- 
ferent elements, the Protestant commercial state of Holland, which 
was of like nationality with its sovereign, and the Catholic manufactur- 
ing country of Belgium, which was divided between the Flemish and 
Walloon nationalities, but was pervaded by French culture." Ploetz, 
489. 

4. Separation of Belgium, 1830; since then the Netherlands have 
consisted of eleven provinces. Area, 12,648 sq. m. ; equals Connec- 
ticut and Massachusetts. Population, 4.3 m. 

5. Since 1830, an uneventful history. 

B. BELGIUM. 

1. Separated from Holland, 1830. Nine provinces ; area, 11,373 
sq. m. ; population, about 6 m. 

2. Cause of the insurrection was the underlying discord always 
present between the two sections of the country. The two coun- 
tries, Holland and Belgium, did not have the same language or the 
same religious or commercial interests. Fyffe, H. 381-390. 

" The Belgians complained that they were saddled with part of the burden of the enor- 
mous national debt of Holland ; that they contributed to the building of Dutch ships and 
other objects from which they derived no benefit whatever. Their discontent was also 
increased by the unpopular government of King W^illiam I., wlio treated Belgium like a 
conquered country." Ewald, 79. 

" The antagonism between the northern and the southern Nether- 
lands, though not insuperable, was sufficiently great to make a har- 
monious union between the two countries a work of difficulty, and 
the Government of the Hague had not taken the right course to con- 
ciliate its opponents. The Belgians, though more numerous, were 
represented by fewer members in the National Assembly than the 
Dutch. Offices were filled by strangers from Holland ; finance was 
governed by a regard for Dutch interests ; and the Dutch language 
was made the official language for the whole kingdom. But the chief 
grievances were undoubtedly connected with the claims of the 
clerical party in Belgium to a monopoly of spiritual power and the 
exclusive control of education. The one really irreconcilable enemy 
of the Protestant House of Orange was the Church ; and the gov- 
erning impulse in the conflicts which preceded the dissolution of the 



67 



kingdom of the Netherlands in 1830 sprang from the same clerical 
interest which had thrown Belgium into revolt against the Emperor 
Joseph forty years before." Fyffe, II. 382. 

3. Independence was recognized by the foreign powers, and in 
1831 Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg was chosen king ; reigned 
until 1865. 

4. Clericalism. 

5. Government of Belgium. 

(The remainder of this lecture will be occupied with a discussion 
of the subject of emigration from various European countries to the 
United States ; and a statement of the national indebtedness of the 
leading countries of Europe.) 



LECTURE XXIII. 



A. CANADA. 

Reference: Payne: European Colonies, ch. 11. 
1. Early history. 

a. Until 1774, governed by England as a conquered province. 

b. From 1774 until 1791, governed as a crown colony by a 

Governor under the name of Province of Quebec. 

c. In 1791, divided into Upper and Lower Canada, the Ottawa 

River being the boundary between them. In each colony 
a governor and council was established, but there was no 
responsible government. Little wisdom shown in the 
government. 
" The Councils and Assemblies could indeed vote new laws, but 
their acts might be vetoed by an irresponsible Executive. The Coun* 



68 

oils and Assemblies voted supplies, but the Executive administered 
them. No member of the Executive could be deprived of his post 
by the Council and Assembly ; and however corrupt and unpopular 
the entire government might be, it was removable only by the Brit- 
ish Government, which acted through the Colonial office. The Colo- 
nial office was presided over by an English Secretary of State, who 
owed his position to the chances of party politics, and was sometimes 
ignorant of the very names of the colonies whose fortunes were 
placed in his hands. A system better adapted to degrade and irritate 
a growing community could not have been devised." Payne, 103, 
104. 

2. Insurrection of 1837. Causes: — 

a. Ill feeling between the French and English. 

"In Lower Canada there was a chronic animosity between the French and the English. 
It was a war of races, which so divided the people that they hardly mingled in society, and 
' the only public occasion when they met was in the jury-box, and they met there only to 
the utter obstruction of justice.' " The Reign of Queen Victoria, I. 431. 

b. Misrule. 

" There was no agreement between the executive and the assembly. In all of them the 
administration of public affairs was habitually confined to those who did not co-operate har- 
moniously with the popular branch of the legislature." The Reign of Queen Victoria, I. 431. 

3. Responsible government (the Union Act) granted in 1840. 
Upper and Lower Canada were united. 

" The subordination of the Executive to the Legislature, as in the 
mother-country, which was thus secured, received the name of ' Re- 
sponsible Government.' It was the emancipation of the colony, and 
rendered it practically as free as one of the United States. It was 
also the emancipation of the empire, for when secured in one of the 
colonies it was within the reach of all. This change is the principal 
event in our modern colonial history. Henceforth it was recognized 
that the inhabitants of all colonies where Englishmen are the major- 
ity were entitled to the same political rights as Englishmen at home." 
Payne, 105, 106. 

4. Canadian Federation. Payne, 162-164. 

a. 1867, union of Canada, — composed of the provinces of 

Ontario and Quebec, — Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick 

as a " Dominion." 
h. Since then, Prince Edward Island, British Columbia, and 

Manitoba have joined the Confederation. Newfoundland 

not yet included. 



69 



" The Canadian federation was a consequence of the American civil war. Not only did 
there seem to be every prospect of attacl<, but the action of tlie home g'overnment taught 
tlie various colonies of North America that they must rely on their own strength for 
defence. The necessity was common to all, and the advantages of a defensive union were 
conspicuously brought before them." The Reign of Queen Victoria, I. 433. 

5. The Central Government of the Dominion. 

" The government of the Canadian Dominion is modelled upon the 
Federal government of the United States. Each of the seven prov- 
inces which compose the Dominion — Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, 
New Brunswick, Manitoba, Prince Edward Island, and British Colum- 
bia — has its separate provincial legislature. The powers of these 
provincial legislatures are limited to local questions ; and all matters 
of general public policy are dealt with by the Parliament of Canada. 

The Parliament of Canada meets annually at Ottawa, upon sum- 
mons issued by the Governor-General in the Queen's name. The 
real business of the government is carried on by a Cabinet of four- 
teen ministers, who have the support of the majority in the House of 
Commons. The Prime Minister of the Dominion, who is called upon 
by the Governor-General to form an administration, and who forms 
it out of his political supporters, is the ' Minister of the Interior.' 
His duties,- besides the general management of the government and 
miscellaneous duties which are not entrusted to any other minister, 
include those of the Home and Foreign Secretaries in England." 
Payne, 143, 144. 

England has a nominal veto upon Canadian legislation, but never 
exercises it. Appoints the Governor-General. 

6. Government of the Provinces. 

" For provincial political business each province has its own execu- 
tive and legislative bodies. Each has its lieutenant-governor, who 
is appointed by the Governor-General. He is assisted by an Execu- 
tive Council or Cabinet, enjoying the support of the majority in the 
Legislative Assembly. Except Manitoba, all the provinces have 
Legislative Assemblies ; Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and 
Prince Edward Island have also second chambers in the shape of 
Legislative Councils. Ontario and British Columbia have none." 
Payne, 144. 

7. Political parties in Canada. 

a. Conservatives, or Tories ; Sir John Alexander McDonald. 
h. Liberals, or Reformers. 

8. Recent growth and development of Canada. Its indebtedness. 



70 



B. THE FISHERY aUESTION. 

Open sea is open to any one ; each state owns the sea for three 
miles from the shore. Method of measurement. 

1. The Treaty of 1783. 

"By the treaty of 1783, which admitted the independence of the 
United States, Great Britain conceded to them the right of fishing on 
the Banks of Newfoundland along such coasts of the same island as 
were used by British seamen, in the Gulf of St, Lawrence, and on 
the coasts, bays, and creeks of all other British dominions in Amer- 
ica ; as well as the right of drying and curing fish in any of the 
unsettled bays, harbors, and creeks of Nova Scotia, the Magdalen 
Islands, and Labrador so long as they should continue unsettled; but 
not the right of drying .or curing on the island of Newfoundland." 
Woolsey : International Law, 83. 

2. Treaty of 1818. 

"Article I. — Whereas differences have arisen respecting the lib- 
erty claimed by the United States for the inhabitants thereof to take, 
dry, and cure fish on certain coasts, bays, harbors, and creeks of His 
Britannic Majesty's dominions in America, it is agreed between the 
High Contracting Parties that the inhabitants of the said United 
States shall have for ever, in common with the subjects of His Bri- 
tannic Majesty, the liberty to take fish of every kind on that part of 
the southern coast of Newfoundland which extends from Cape Ray 
to the Rameau Islands ; on the western and northern coast of New- 
foundland, from the said Cape Ray to the Quirpon Islands, on the 
shores of the Magdalen Islands ; and also on the coasts, bays, harbors, 
and creeks from Mount Joly, on the southern coast of Labrador, to 
and through the straights of Belleisle, and thence northwardly indefi- 
nitely along the coast, without prejudice however to any of the 
exclusive rights of the Hudson's Bay Company ; and that the Ameri- 
can fisherman shall also have liberty for ever to dry and cure fish in 
any of the unsettled bays, harbors, and creeks of the southern part of 
the coast of Newfoundland here above described, and of the coast of 
Labrador ; but so soon as the same, or any portion thereof, shall be 
settled, it shall not be lawful for the said fishermen to dry or cure 
fish at such portion so settled, without previous agreement for such 
purpose with the inhabitants, proprietors, or possessors of the ground. 



71 

And the United States hereby renounce for ever any liberty hereto- 
fore enjoyed or claimed by the inhabitants thereof to take, dry, or 
cure fish on or within three marine miles of any of the coasts, bays, 
creeks, or harbors of His Britannic Majesty's dominions in America 
not included within the above-mentioned limits; provided, however, 
that the American fishermen shall be admitted to enter such bays or 
harbors for the purpose of shelter and of repairing damages therein, 
of purchasing wood, and of obtaining water, and for no other purpose 
whatever. But they shall be under such restrictions as may be neces- 
sary to prevent their taking, drying, or curing fish therein, or in any 
other manner whatever abusing the privileges hereby reserved to 
them." 

According to this treaty, therefore, American vessels can enter 
harbors for shelter, food, or water, but not for bait. 

3. Reciprocity treaty of 1854. Liberty to American vessels to 
fish, and commercial privileges to Canadians. Fish were admitted 
free of duty. 

" The inhabitants of the United States shall have, in common with tlie subjects of Her 
Britannic Majesty, the liberty to take fish of every kind, except shell fish, on the sea coasts 
and shores, and in the bays, harbors, and creeks of Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, 
Prince Edward Island, and of the several islands theremito adjacent, without beuig re- 
stricted to any distance from the shore." 

This treaty terminated in 1866 ; treaty of 1818 again in force. 

4. Treaty of Washington, 1871. Government of United States 
agreed to pay Canada a certain sum per annum for the grant of right 
to fishermen. In 1880, this treaty was extended for a further period 
of five years. Allowed to lapse in 1886. 

5. Present situation. 



LECTURE XXIV. 



A. MEXICO. 

Area, 645,000 sq. m. ; or nearly one-fourth of the United States. 
Population, 6.7 m. 

1. Colonial period; authentic history dates from 1521; until 1821, 
a province of Spain. 

" During these three centuries the attitude of the masses was one rather of sullen sub- 
mission than of active resistance to grinding oppression." 

Valued by Spain simply on account of its metals. Country 
worked for the benefit of the Spanish crown. System of reparti- 
mentos, or distribution of the aborigines on the plantations and in 
the mines. Wells : Study of Mexico, ch. 3. 

2. Revolt in 1810 under Hidalgo. Wells, 67. "Liberator," Itur- 
bide. Independence declared in 1821. 

3. Mexico as an independent nation, 1821 — X. 

a. Revolutionary spirit throughout the whole period ; anarchy ; 

dictatorships. 
" Since the establishment of her independence in 1821, Mexico, 
down to the year 1844 — a period of sixty-three years — has had fifty- 
five presidents, two emperors, and one regency, and, with some three 
or four exceptions, there was a violent change of the government 
with every new administration." Wells, 69. 

b. Constitution adopted in 1824, modelled after that of the 

United States. 19 states and 5 territories. 

c. War with the United States in 1846, by which Mexico lost 

nearly one-half her territory. 

d. Reforms introduced to correct the prevailing evils ; amended 

constitution ; and " War of Reform " for three years, 
1857-1860. Financial embarrassment. 

e. 1861, suspension of specie payments ; obligations largely 

held in Europe ; interference of France, England, and 



73 

Spain ; France sent an army ; Napoleon's ambition to 
obtain power; England and Spain withdrew. In 1863, the 
French army entered Mexico, and established an heredit- 
ary monarchy. Archduke Maximilian of Austria made 
emperor. 

/. Demand of the United States, upon the close of the civil 
war, that the French troops withdraw from Mexico. 
Monroe doctrine. Compliance, and fall of Maximilian. 
In 1867, the Emperor captured and shot. 

g. Presidency of Juarez ; confiscation of church property. 

4. Government of Mexico. A republic of 27 states. Similar to 
that of the United States. 

5. Indebtedness and financial distress. 

B. CENTRAL AMERICA. 

1. Composed of five republics: — Costa Rica, 23,200 sq. m. 

Guatemala, 46,800 sq. m. Honduras, 46,400 " 
Nicaragua, 49,500 " Salvador, 7,225 " 

Total population not large. 

2. Acquired their independence in the first part of this century. 
Frequent attempts to unite them under one government as a confed- 
eration ; but, with exception of a short period, unsuccessful. 

3. Constitutions modelled after that of the United States. 

4. Panama Canal project. In 1878, government of United States 
of Colombia granted concession to a company to build a canal from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific, through the Isthmus of Panama. De Les- 
seps interested. 

5. Nicaragua Canal project. Scheme revived in 1879. Treaty 
with the United States proposed (1884), by which the United States 
was to be empowered to build a canal. English objections based 
upon Clayton Bulwer Treaty of 1850. 

6. Ship Railway scheme ; across Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in 
southern Mexico. Captain Eads. 



LECTURE XXY. 

THE REPUBLICS OF SOUTH AMERICA; BRAZIL. 



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